• Create audiocasts or podcasts that can be uploaded to the Web and shared with others. Podcasts can be interviews with interesting people, simple narrations, or cute snippets of your children talking.
  
• Record live events such as lectures and presentations. Of course, you need to have a laptop to bring along with you.
  
• Move your old records and cassettes into the digital age and convert them to an MP3 digital audio file. With additional equipment (a cassette or record player with a line-out plug and cable), you can connect this equipment to your computer and use Audacity to make versions of your music that you can play on a digital music player like an iPod.
  
• Edit most digital audio files, such as podcasts, to add in music, delete segments, remove unwanted noise, add in some audio effects. Audacity lets you work with audio files to make them better.
  
• Record audio from YouTube. Have you ever wanted only the audio portion of a YouTube video? Well, now you can play the video directly from YouTube, but "strip" only the audio portion out for your own use.
  
• Create a ringtone for your cell phone. Audacity lets you convert between audio formats. It supports Ogg Vorbis, MP3, WAV, and AIFF formats, and can convert between them.
  

In this article, the screenshots are specific to the Mac OS X software. However, don't be concerned if this is not your computer operating system of choice. The software itself is very similar between operating systems, and any notable differences between the Audacity software screens for different operating systems, are noted, so you know what to look for.

• Can't play or record files in the MIDI audio file format.
  
• Doesn't natively play or export audio in propriety or restricted file audio formats, such as WMA or AAC. Additional plug-ins must be installed to do this.
  
• Has less plug-ins and effects than a specialized Digital Audio Workstation (DAW).
  
• Can't apply sound effects in realtime. This means that you have to record the track and then apply sound effects to the track.
  
• Isn't a specialized audio editing software package, so there are some limitations on multi-track editing and mixing features.
  

• Project—when you open Audacity, you will open or create a new project. This includes all of the files, timing, and information on how you combined and edited different pieces of audio into your file or project. This term isn't specific to audio editing, but to software that combines pieces of different files into a single file in order to create a final output.
  
• Clip—is a short segment of audio. It can be combined with others to make an audio track.
  
• Track—one continuous audio element.
  
• Library—a collection of audio files or tracks. These can be grouped according to the content of the audio files (like a music library) or just by the location of where they are stored.
  
• Effect—there are two types of effects: generator and processing. Generator effects artificially create sounds using your audio track (or add it in). Processing effects work with the existing audio and edit or change it for a desired result.
  
• Noise—is sound of any kind, especially unintelligible or dissonant sound, that interferes with the main audio that you want heard in a track. Or simply put, it is any sound that you don't want in the audio track.
  
• Bit or Sample Rates—the number of computer bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time. This is normally expressed in kilobits per second (kbps). A higher bit or sample rate means that your track was recorded in better quality.
  
• Export—the process of saving the audio in another format other than the format of the program that you created it in, usually so that you can play it or use it on another device or computer program. Typically, for audio, you will export files in a WAV or MP3 format.
  
• WAV, AIFF, MP3—these are all audio file types. This means that when you export an audio track from Audacity, it can be any of these formats, or you can simply do a Save As, to save it in the Audacity format of AUP. However, then only Audacity will be able to open the AUP file to listen to its contents.
  

The main menu appears a bit differently when using different operating systems. When using Audacity on the Windows or Linux operating systems, the main menu is seen on top of the program window. With the Macintosh operating system, it is along the top bar of the computer screen.

A project encompasses all of the clips and files that you have already imported into Audacity, the timing, silencing, and other editing that you have spent time to create. All of this, is stored in a way that Audacity recognizes. So the next time you open your AUP project file, it's all there, just the way you saved it.

• There is one audio clip per track. Remember that a clip is simply a piece of audio that is imported, recorded, split, or duplicated from another track.
  
• A track, on the other hand, is one continuous piece of audio (as shown in your timeline). This means that it can only carry one piece of audio at a time. You can add to an audio track by pasting audio into it, inserting silence, or cutting a piece away, but it will always be one continuous piece of audio.
  
• Audacity always records to a new track. When you click on Record, this will always be a new audio track to work with. The new track will appear at the bottom of the project view. Sometimes you may need to resize the Audacity window, or scroll to the bottom-most audio track in order to see what was, or is being, recorded.
  
• Audacity references the original audio until you actually perform an edit, cut, silence, or apply some sort of audio effect to it. But note that if you are ever unhappy with an edit, you can always undo (and then, if necessary, redo) all of the edits that you have made, even after you have saved your project.
  

• A computer (or laptop) with a sound card
  
• A microphone
  
• A microphone stand, or something to secure the microphone while you are recording, may be useful, so that you can avoid any additional interference
  

• The most inexpensive option is to use your computer's internal microphone (if it has one). This is definitely enough to get you started on our sample project.
  
• The next least-expensive option is a simple headset of the kind that are easily available in most big department stores, and are used commonly by computer gamers. The headphone portion uses your computer's sound card and lets you listen to stereo sound from music, games, movies, and more. The microphone, is usually incorporated into the headset, is often noise-canceling, and generally offers decent quality sound recording. With a headset, no microphone stand or other equipment is required to get started.
  
  
  

  

  
  
• The next best choice is a dynamic microphone. They are durable, with few moving parts, and are ideal for someone who wants that little bit of extra quality when recording vocals. No additional power source is needed, but a microphone stand is recommended.
  
  
  

  

  
  

Introduction

If you don't have FMOD Designer it is free to download. There is also an in-depth tutorial available that will delve further into using FMOD and explain exactly what is going on and how it all works.

Understanding explosions

The environment is also crucial to how an explosion will sound. A gas ignition explosion in air will generate a sound as the gas ignites and burns the fuel available. The same gas igniting underwater will create a completely different sound as water transmits sound differently and underwater there is no direct oxygen to burn. Both of these are long sounds as the quantity of gas ignites and burns. A military grade explosive however is an immediate concussive event that will produce a short bang impulse.

For more detailed information on explosion sounds refer to this tutorial.

Understanding materials

Choosing the materials

Metal is always an effective sound to include in explosions as it generates harsh sounds through either impact or scrape movements. Wood provides a good solid basis for many dramatic sounds as does stone. Glass is excellent for the inclusion of debris movement as it shatters into many smaller fragments. Glass also produces high frequency sounds that are uncomfortable to listen to and so adds a sense of threat to an explosion sound.

Creating the effect

Step 1

Figure 2. Note the various sound types within the material folder

Step 2

My sound library has nearly 2000 material sounds sorted by material and labelled by the type of action. You need to be pretty thorough and systematic here; you do not want to stare at metal 10 and not know if it is a crash, clank or scrape. Note the naming convention used in figure 2.

Step 3

Initially we are only going to use the material Sound definitions, so create one for each of the glass, metal, stone and wood material types. A Sound definition should only contain one type of material of one particular sound type. So one Sound definition would contain Metal_light_crash01.wav to Metal_light_crash09.wav the next might contain Wood_metal_fall01.wav to Wood_metal_fall07.wav and so on. In this way each definition has a selection of similar sound types. This makes tweaking and altering your sound events much easier.

Figure 3. Creating Sound definitions. Files can be dragged directly from windows into FMOD.

Step 4

These values tell FMOD that each time a Sound definition is called we want it to randomly choose from the sound files contained in each definition and then randomise its Volume, Pitch, 3D position and trigger delay. This randomisation is what will help us create a unique sound every time our explosion event is triggered. This is also why we place the same material and sound type in each definition. As they are the building blocks to create our sounds we need them to be predictable when we use them. Mixing metal, and glass into one Sound definition would limit our control of the sound event.

These are the initial Sound definition parameter values I start with. But I will constantly change and tweak these individually as I progress.

Step 5

Once you have named your Event you can either double click on it or select it and click on the Event editor tab. This is where we will create our Event.

Step 6

Step 7

If we think back to how an explosion plays out we have the initial release of force, followed by the reactions of materials in the environment. Logically this means that our release of force sound must occur before our materials respond. To more accurately reflect that in our event we will individually alter the trigger delays for each Sound definition. The trigger delay is one of the most important parameters in creating effective chaotic events because it is what defines the order in which our Sound definitions will be triggered. We still want to maintain a level of randomness in our event so we will create a window of time in which each event will occur.

A large range of values can create effective results but as a general rule the explosive force sounds should be sooner. [0,250] Trigger delay for the explosive force sounds and the materials should come later with a value of [200,500]. The more you mix up the delays the more random the sound will be. Another tip is to set two different values for the initial explosive forces. Try setting the sounds of the shotguns at [0,200] and the sounds of the rifles at [200,300] this creates an effective “double blast” effect that can sound very effective. I also add an overall Pitch value of -2 to the gunshot sounds. This lowers them by 2 octaves and makes them sound much more like an explosive concussion. As always experiment with different settings.

Now add some more layers and add several of the elemental Sound definitions. I have used the rifle, shotgun and flame burst Sound definitions. This will now add the initial explosive force to the event and make it sound more like a triggered explosion. The large gas flame eruption or loud concussive bang added to the initial collapse event changes the overall dynamic of the Event.

You are pretty much there. Experiment with changing the Sound definitions (right-click on an existing Sound definition and choose Replace Sound) in each layer to hear the different results you can achieve, you can also mute any of the layers in the event to test how it sounds without that layer. I am going to add some more layers to build on the initial simple version of the explosion. The Advanced sounds folder contains additional sounds that can be added to this event to add further depth to the sound. Continue to experiment with the available sounds.

In regards to the actual sound files that are present in each of the Sound definitions, I sometimes find when I audition my sound events that there are sounds elements that just don’t quite work. For example, sometimes a sound of metal collapsing that worked really well in a car crash just doesn’t suit an explosion. When I audition my events I listen carefully for anything I don’t like, I mute various layers to try and isolate the problem and when I find it I return to the Sound definition. By listening to each sound file in a Sound definition individually I can find any that I don’t like and delete them from the project. Sometimes I will remove an entire definition and all its files, sometimes I only need to remove a couple of files here and there. Do not feel that you need to keep all the sounds just because they were grouped together to start with. It is this fine tuning that really makes the difference between a well crafted sound and a fairly generic sound.

A quick swap of some of the Sound definitions being used and an adjustment to some parameters and a second explosion can quickly be produced. Once the building blocks have been assembled, producing assets and adjusting them to specific requirements should be easy and allow for a more organic process as project requirements change, which they invariably do during the course of development.

Going Further

Create a second set of Sound definitions from the sound files provided in the Underwater sounds folder. Remember to group sound files of the same name into the same Sound definition. For the initial explosion event we initially used the same parameters for each Sound definition. While this provided a basic explosion effect, more realistic sounds were created by tailoring the parameters for each Sound definition to suit its place in the Event.

The following table lists the Sound definitions I have used and the trigger delay values I have chosen. These can of course be altered to individual tastes. Set the other Sound definition parameters to match those in Figure 4.

The above values indicate that Sound definitions such as the flame bursts, the shotgun firing and the tone are all set to trigger earlier than the other definitions. These are the sounds that I want to represent the initial release of energy. The remaining definitions I have set to create a kind of cascade after the initial bang. Once you place the Sound definitions into an Event you can audition your sound effect and continue to tweak it until you are happy with it.

Tweaking within the Event

The process of repeated auditioning and tweaking resulted in me further tweaking a few of the trigger delay values slightly to achieve a sound I was happy with, but I also realised that several of the layers were not needed. Mute each layer individually and if it does not greatly alter the overall sound then remove it. Never keep a layer that is not a direct benefit to the final sound.

Figure 9. Working with layers

The greyed out layers are muted and will be deleted as they add nothing to the final sound.

A new way of thinking

Randomization of sound effects in games is an important part of avoiding annoying repetition in the audio environment, but its impact on the game can be far more than simply removing a bad aspect. Well designed and unique sound events will drastically increase the realism of any game environment. The change from repetitive to uniquely generated events should not be seen as a single step of improvement such as using higher resolution sounds or a few more choices in a sound pool. A sound event that is different every time it is triggered can alter how visual are perceived and ultimately the experience the player will have.

There are several main ideas behind this tutorial that are worth restating:

Firstly that randomisation is your best friend in sound design, especially when dealing with chaotic dramatic events. Secondly there are very few rules, and many guidelines. Experimentation is one of your best tools. Play with the parameter values, the choice of source files and the order in which you assemble your materials, you will be amazed at the results you stumble across. Thirdly there is no substitute to using your ears. Listening to your sound again and again and again is essential. Listen to what is there, but also listen to what isn’t there. If a certain layer can’t be heard or doesn’t seem to be contributing to the mix, then remove it. And lastly enjoy the process; there is nothing more enjoyable than creating something amazing out of nothing.

Like any project, the first stage should always be research. It is two-fold; how will the sounds be created, and what is my audience expecting to hear. Both are equally important. In addition to the standard categories of foley sound effects, such as footsteps and prop sounds, I found that sound effects for martial arts consist of at least two unique categories. These two unique categories are hits, and movement.

The Sound of Watermelons

In my research, I found that quite commonly, smashing watermelons with sticks is the way hit sound effects are created for martial art sequences. That is, the sounds that we have become accustomed to hearing when one character is hitting another. It is the combination of a sharp initial crack and the wet, slushy sound of the watermelon splintering. Not the imagery you would like to be thinking of. It raises a good point however and perhaps the most important point in this article; sound is not what it looks like.

If a film’s production relied entirely on the location sound recorded together with the footage, a film’s sound would come across as empty, bland and without any power of suggestion. Take for example, the sound of one person’s fist hitting another person’s face (and the actors hadn’t even done that!) The sound is if anything, extremely low in amplitude and completely without the emotional energy needed to move an audience. Now while an audience is in the most part concerned with the visual element of a film, a film’s sound should be unobtrusive and go without notice, whilst having the most profound emotional effect it possibly can.

While I was having watermelon juice sprayed all over me, I was considering what all this should mean to an audio practitioner. When faced with a piece of film on the screen, how am I going to decide what props to use and record? What microphones and microphone techniques will produce the most emotive sound? That, I have found from experience, can only come from thorough research and experimentation.

At the time of recording these hit sounds for the martial arts sequence I was working on, I only had my hands on two microphones; a Rode NT3 and a very basic interview microphone I had picked up at a camera store for $40. Obviously the NT3 is a far superior microphone but there were some interesting discoveries when using the $40 interview microphone.

Both microphones were placed on stands in a fairly dull sounding room around fifteen to twenty centimeters from the watermelon. Pop screens were placed in front of each microphone (in the hope of protecting the microphones from watermelon spray) and fed into a small Yamaha 4-track tape machine. The output of the 4-track was then sent to a computer with a basic sound-card and into the multi-track program Samplitude Studio. First, I recorded for around a minute with only the NT3, giving the watermelon plenty of solid hits, adjusting the input gain on the 4-track with each hit. Then, I followed the same process with the interview microphone.

When listening to the recordings, I found that the NT3 had far better lower and mid-range frequency response, while strangely the interview microphone had a much sharper higher frequency response. Being a shotgun microphone, the interview microphone most likely had a large peak in the upper mid-range frequencies. The hit sounds had a very fast attack with no decay whatsoever. Satisfied with the recordings, I moved on to recording the movement sounds.

The Sound of Ferns

When it came to recording the ferns however, I found the process more difficult than recording the watermelon hits. The level of the sound source was very low, and adding gain to the microphone input added a lot of room noise. I think in this situation, a microphone with a wider polar pattern such as an omni pattern, or even a stereo microphone such as the Rode NT4, would have captured the overall sound better. In the end, I decided to use both microphones simultaneously, spread about twenty centimeters apart and facing about forty-five degrees away from each other. This seemed to capture the fast movement of the fern and give an adequate sound pressure level.

A Note on Recording Technique

Limit the amount of noise by only using as much gain as is necessary to record your sound, try to get your microphone as close as you can to the sound source, and try to only use equipment that operates with very low noise. Where appropriate, try to use noise reduction effects before you present your final audio mix to your editor.

In the case of this article, ideally I would have benefited greatly by having a more sensitive studio condenser with changeable polar patterns and a good quality preamp and compressor. In that way, I could have found the optimum microphone placement and recording level, without encountering clipping or distortion occurrences.

The Power of Mixing

For the project I was working on, I was using Samplitude Studio, which is a very powerful multi-track program that has a long list of features beyond this article. The fern recordings needed to be louder and brighter so I made good use of the program’s built in noise reduction plugins, combined with multi-band compression to make the recordings louder, without introducing too much noise or distortion. Not all the watermelon recordings were usable as the first few hits clipped and were very distorted. Some room reverb was added to match the scene of the visuals and soften the samples, slightly distancing the perspective of the sound.

An incredible amount of subtle variation can be created by simply having different combinations of the same samples, at different levels and panning positions. By using Samplitude Studio’s pitch-shifting and time-stretching plugins, I was able to not only improve the movement samples, but I also came away with around thirty new movement samples. I went back to the watermelon samples and used the same technique. This gave me a much larger library of samples, giving more variation to the fight sequence audio. There is nothing worse than having the exact same sample for five strikes in a row. Even if the audience doesn’t notice it, someone will.

The samples created were then carefully synced to the visuals in the video editing program Final Cut Pro. There were more than one-hundred and twenty unique hit and movement samples in total, edited and created from variations of only around twenty original samples. Foley sounds were added later by another sound editor.

Final Thoughts

Never forget the importance of research. It brings understanding about technique and perception, which are two of the most integral factors in creating effective art.

In the case of writing the music for Plushed, the iPhone creation by Blacksmith Games, the question that was immediately apparent was; how can a short looping composition catch the attention of an audience and also remain instilled in their memory?

This article explores the process of writing video game music, based on the compositional process for one of the ten levels of music from the iPhone game Plushed.

Step One: Choose your instruments

How important is instrumentation?

The point is not if a listener is consciously listening to the pizzicato strings, though a composer would prefer at times they did not, the point is that a composer needs to be knowledgeable about which instruments create which effect.

Why choose orchestral instruments for Plushed?

Step Two: Create your motifs

Motifs are the melodic and rhythmic material that is at the core of a theme. It is what will be used and modified when developing a theme and is the basis for reminding an audience of a theme.

What are the second level motifs in Plushed?

While the oboe has several small motifs also. Such as at bar ten,

and also at bar nineteen.

Then there is the clarinet and bassoon counterpoint at bar fourteen,

and the rising flute run at bar sixteen.

Motifs can be very short, even just several notes. As long as a motif achieves its goal of contributing to a theme, then duration is of lesser importance.

Step Three: Build your structure

Structure and compositional technique

1. (Bar one) – Light percussion introduced
2. (Bar two) – Pizzicato string motif
3. (Bar three) – Ascending marimba run
4. (Bar four) – Flute motif call
5. (Bar five) – Pizzicato string and marimba response
6. (Bar seven) – Flute motif extension
7. (Bar eight) – Pizzicato string and marimba variation
8. (Bar ten) – Oboe motif
9. (Bar twelve) – Pizzicato string and marimba repeat
10. (Bar fourteen) – Bassoon and clarinet counterpoint motif
11. (Bar sixteen) – Flute ending motif
12. (Bar eighteen) – Ascending marimba run
13. (Bar nineteen) – Oboe ending motif with pizzicato strings

Mood is created almost immediately by the introduction of the pizzicato strings which are based around the aeolian scale. Since Plushed is a side scrolling action game, the pizzicato strings give the track a light, playful feel and work well together with the movement of the main character.

The aeolian scale is essentially a harmonic minor scale with a lowered seventh. It has a dark, mystical feel, and harmonies based on the aeolian scale resonant well with visuals that are seeking to be engaged by the audience.

Following shortly after is a medium paced, ascending marimba motif, based also around the aeolian scale. This was added to bridge the pizzicato strings to the flute and oboe and accentuates the playful nature of the track. By basing the marimba on the aeolian scale, it creates a light tension that is also supported by the dissonant sounding legato strings.

At bar four the flute is introduced, playing a short motif, the first of a two part sequence. The pizzicato strings and marimba then repeat, and the second part of the flute motif follows in bar seven. This is an example of a call and response between the strings and the flute, with the marimba acting as a bridge. This kind of call and response gives variation and also helps in the build up towards later sections in the music.

At bar eight and nine the pizzicato strings and marimba double together to play a new motif. This is a development from the first cello motif and helps lead into the oboe motif.

By bar ten the call and response between the cellos and the flute has been well established. By bar ten in a twenty-three bar composition, the time is right to vary the flute motif, and so the oboe motif in introduced, giving instrumental variation.

There is then a movement to a bassoon and clarinet motif. By having the bassoon and clarinet play in counterpoint allows for more harmonic interest and relieves the flute and oboe from the task of lead motifs. With the flute and oboe sitting in the higher register, the bassoon and clarinet balance the melodic range of the track.

By bar sixteen it is time to return to the flute, which has been the main motif instrument, and so a small climax is reached by the introduction of a new rising flute motif.

The track comes to an end with a new oboe motif, supported by the original pizzicato strings motif.

The decisions about structure come from a balance between the lead motifs and their supporting instruments. Variation of instrumentation, together with repetition of the main motifs, is the key to creating a memorable composition.

Step Four: The recording process

With the production of the video game music for Plushed, high quality orchestral samples were used and were triggered by a midi score. There are advantages to this style of composition, primarily the time required to create a fully produced score, and the soundtrack of a video game can be composed in very short amount of time.

An important point to make is that a lot can be achieved by remixing the samples used in midi compositions. By utilizing effects and mixing techniques, the scale and perception of a score can be greatly enhanced. Through the use of layering, delays and high quality reverbs, an already sweet sounding score can move into a whole new realm.

Step Five: Listen and listen again

The best way to limit the chances of repetition is to make full use of variation in instrumentation and thematic devices. By having several key motifs that are balanced across varying instruments, the chance of the music sounding repetitive and boring will be greatly reduced.

Testing the music in different situations can help a lot too. Using a game music track as a ring tone for example, is an interesting way to see how well the track will be received. How long will a person keep that ring tone? They will certainly change it if they find the music too obtrusive or too repetitive.

Final Thoughts

To see the final version of the second level game music of Plushed, an ingame video has been included for reference. Note: At 45seconds the game play video changes to a higher game level music track.

Want to read the next article about composing music for the iPhone video game Plushed? Or how about music industry articles in general? Why not subscribe to the Spencer Sternberg Feed.

The symphony orchestra is one of the most versatile mediums of music performance, which is capable of producing an almost infinite number of different shades of expression. However, in order to successfully utilize its power, one must first have a solid understanding of the general principles of orchestration. This article is meant to serve as a crash course in the basics of classical orchestration for beginner and intermediate game composers to enhance their use of orchestral sample libraries and in turn, increase their profitability as composers.

For the sake of brevity, this article assumes that the reader has a general understanding of music theory and is familiar with and has access to an orchestral sample library such as VSL, EastWest, or Garritan. In addition, we will focus only on the traditional instruments of the classical orchestra, excluding later additions such as the saxophone and drumset.

As you begin your journey into the art of orchestration, it is prudent to understand these three axioms set out by master orchestrator Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov in his definitive guide to orchestration, Principles of Orchestration:

I. In the orchestra there is no such thing as ugly quality of tone.
II. Orchestral writing should be easy to play; a composer's work stands the best chance when the parts are well written.
III. A work should be written for the size of the orchestra that is to perform it, not for some imaginary body as many composers persist in doing.

The student will probably pass through the following phases:

1. The phase during which he puts his entire faith in percussion instruments, believing that beauty of sound emanates entirely from this branch of the orchestra—this is the earliest stage.
2. The period when he acquires a passion for the harp, using it in every possible chord.
3. The stage during which he adores the woodwind and horns, using stopped notes in conjunction with strings, muted or pizzicato.
4. The more advanced period, when he has come to recognize that the string group is the richest and most expressive of all. When the student works alone he must try to avoid the pitfalls of the first three phases.

Overview of Orchestral Groups

The Strings

The primary differences between the string instruments are their sizes, ranges, and tunings. All are tuned to fifths except for the double basses that are tuned to fourths. Below is a useful chart for the ranges of string instruments:

The most common tones are produced by initiating the vibration of the strings through either bowing or plucking. This can be done through an almost infinite variety of different articulations, more so than any other orchestral group. Based on the completeness of your orchestral library, many of these articulations may be available for you to use.

Common string articulations

• Détaché - Each note is played with a change in bow direction from down to up with the bow remaining in constant contact with the string. This articulation can be played at practically any speed up to about sixteenth notes at 160 bpm.
• Staccato - Each note is played with a fast attack and a fairly abrupt release. Players shouldn't be expected to play staccato any faster than sixteenth notes at 110 bpm.
• Spiccato - Similar to staccato in that there is a fast attack and an abrupt release, yet the sound is produced by bouncing the bow off the string. Maximum speed is around sixteenth notes at 132 bpm.
• Jeté/Ricochet - The bow is thrown against the string and allowed to repeatedly bounce off of it, which allows the player to play at very fast speeds. This articulation is most commonly started with a down bow giving an accent to the first beat.
• Tremolo - A rapid succession of unmeasured down and up strokes. It can have a mysterious tone at low dynamic levels as well as produce the strings' loudest sound possible.
• Portamento - Played with the bow in constant contact with the string emphasizing exaggerated slides in pitch between successive notes; can produce an eerie, haunting effect when used appropriately.
• Con sordino - A mute is applied to the bridge of the instrument producing a muffled, less brilliant tone.
• Pizzicato - The strings are plucked, most commonly with the first and second fingers. This gives a relatively fast attack and a medium release to the tone that is fairly moderate in loudness.

The Woodwinds

Below is a table of the primary woodwind instruments with tone descriptions for each of their registers:

Rimsky-Korsakov describes the tone qualities of the primary woodwind instruments in the following excerpt:

• Flute — Cold in quality, specially suitable, in the major key, to melodies of light and graceful character; in the minor key, to slight touches of transient sorrow.
• Oboe — Artless and gay in the major, pathetic and sad in the minor.
• Clarinet — Pliable and expressive, suitable, in the major, to melodies of a joyful or contemplative character, or to outbursts of mirth; in the minor, to sad and reflective melodies or impassioned and dramatic passages.
• Bassoon — In the major, an atmosphere of senile mockery; a sad, ailing quality in the minor

The Brass

The ranges and timbres of the brass instruments are quite similar with the sound becoming more brilliant as the higher registers are approached. Trumpets, trombones, and tubas have roughly an equal amount of power. The horns however have about half that strength when played forte. In order to properly balance when the rest of the brass is playing pianissimo, the horns should be playing piano. When the rest of the brass is playing forte, two horns are needed for every one trumpet, trombone, or tuba:

Additionally, brass instruments can make use of mutes to decrease the volume of tone. Unlike string mutes that have a deadening effect on the sound by reducing the energy of upper frequencies, brass mutes create a more edgy, nasally tone by reducing the energy of the lower frequencies. Furthermore, stopped notes can be used by the horn and less frequently the trumpet to produce a wider variety of timbres.

Percussion

Percussion instruments with definite pitch

• Kettle-drums (Timpani) - indispensable member of any concert orchestra; made from a calfskin or plastic drumhead stretched across a large kettle made most commonly of copper; capable of producing all dynamic levels from explosive fortissimo to barely audible pianissimo; well suited to performing gradual drum roll crescendos and decrescendos.
• Glockenspiel - metal bars arranged like piano keys that are attached to a portable frame and stricken with mallets; produces a high pitched, penetrating tone that is easily audible in most orchestral textures
• Celesta - very similar to a piano except that the strings are replaced with small steel plates; produces an astonishing, brilliant tone similar to that of the glockenspiel.
• Xylophone - wooden bars arranged like piano keys on top of a freestanding fixture; played with mallets; produces a crisp, dry and penetrating tone

Percussion instruments with no discernable pitch

• Snare drum - cylindrical shell made of metal or wood with drumheads stretched over both sides; curled metal wires (snares) are strung across the bottom drumhead giving the snare it's distinctive sound; most commonly played with drumsticks
• Cymbals - two large, metal plates with concave centers held with straps; normally ranging from 17 to 22 inches in diameter; most commonly crashed together although many different articulations are possible
• Triangle - metal rod bent into a triangular shape with one open corner; typically struck with a brass rod

Instrumentation

Choosing How Many of Each Instrument To Use

The first question you must ask yourself is, "How big of an orchestra do I want to use?" The bigger the sound you want, the bigger orchestra you should use. If your piece is ever performed by a live orchestra, you may find that the conductor requests the piece to be arranged for a smaller or larger orchestra than you originally intended, but for our purpose of composing for an orchestral sample library, we have total control over how many instruments we invite to the party.

We can break down these different sizes into three basic categories: small, medium, and large. Below is a table of the most common instrumentation for each of the different sizes. By no means are these set in stone, but they form a solid starting ground for developing the balanced sound we seek to achieve.

Seating Charts

Below is a typical orchestra seating chart with the strings scattered across the front of the stage, the woodwinds directly behind them, the brass behind the woodwinds, the percussion in the far left corner, and the piano, harp, and double basses in the far right corner:

Even though most seating charts you see will be very similar if not identical to this setup, this is only one way to organize an orchestra. Feel free to experiment with your own seating charts, and you may discover something that works better for you. One thing that I have found to work quite well is to do everything as shown above but arrange the strings from left to right as follows: 1st violins -> cellos -> violas -> 2nd violins. This seating arrangement allows the ability to create cool stereo effects between the 1st and 2nd violins while having the more omnidirectional bass frequencies that come from the cellos emanate from the center as is common in most popular music recordings.

Orchestration

Before we begin assigning parts to instruments, it is very important that your music makes sense to the ear in an absolute sense. What I mean by absolute sense is that if you were to have one or two pianists play the entire composition, would the music be easily digested by the ear with clearly defined musical lines or would it be difficult to discern the different parts from one another? If the answer is the latter, you probably want to revisit the composition of the music before you attempt to orchestrate it. Well composed music will always translate better to the orchestra, so take the time and make sure you're happy with the notes before you start deciding which instruments should play them.

Balance

The different factors that affect balance are as follows:

1. Number of instruments playing the line. The more players that are playing a given line, the louder and more powerful the line becomes. That being said, equal numbers of instruments of equal weight in tone will produce an even balance. For example, two flutes playing a melody line in unison will balance evenly with two bassoons playing a bass line in unison.
2. Instrument's family. As a general statement, brass and percussion instruments are the strongest members of the orchestra, then the strings, and then the woodwinds. Careful consideration must be taken when balancing parts among the different families. It is often best to balance each family within itself to achieve an even balance in the whole orchestra.
3. Instrument's register. The quality of tone and degree of weight varies greatly depending on the instrument's register. It is very important to understand these differences to properly balance textures. Refer to the range charts given in the "Overview of Orchestral Groups"
4. Vertical relationship to the other parts. The top line of a texture is the easiest to hear, the bottom line is the next easiest, and the middle voices are the most difficult.
5. Space between parts. The farther apart voices are from each other, the easier it is to discern them from one another.
6. Degree of movement. The more a part moves, the more it sticks out within a texture. The less a part moves, the more it fades into the background.
7. Dynamics. Although, balance through instrumentation is commonly the best approach, certain instances call for instruments to play at different dynamic levels. Suppose you want to have your first violinist stand up and take a solo. You would likely want to have the orchestra playing two dynamic shades lower than the first violinist so as not to drown him/her out.

Blending

It is important to understand that the more instruments you have playing a given line, the less colorful the line becomes, but with loss of color comes gain in power. As you begin blending timbres, there are a few different factors that tend to produce better results:

1. When the instruments are in the same family and even more so in the same subgroup (e.g. single-reeds).
2. When the instruments are evenly balanced with each other (e.g. 1 trumpet playing f = 2 french horns playing f).
3. When the instruments play adjacent voices.
4. When the instruments play parts that are similar to each other, especially in articulation.
5. When none of the timbres attract more attention than the others.
6. When the intervals between the instruments remain relatively consistent.

Function

• Melody
• • Keep line on top of the texture
  • Double on the unison or in octaves
  • Use instruments with greater strength
  • Use the more powerful registers
  • Use louder dynamic markings
• Bass
• • Keep line on the bottom of the texture
  • Double on the unison or in octaves
  • Use instruments with powerful low registers
  • Use louder dynamic markings
• Accompaniment
• • Keep lines in the middle of the texture
  • Use less doubling
  • Use instruments with lesser strength
  • Use the weaker registers
  • Use instruments of similar timbres
  • Use softer dynamic markings

Suggested Listening

• Ravel - "Boléro"
• • Listen to how the orchestral texture grows as the melody is passed from solo instruments to groups of instruments to the full orchestra.
    
    
• Rimsky-Korsakov - "Capriccio espagnol"
• • Listen to how clear and unobstructed all the parts are. Pay attention to his doublings and use of percussion.
    
    
• Stravinsky - "The Rite of Spring"
• • Listen to how he is experimenting with the woodwind range extremes in the opening. As the piece progresses, listen to how many different sounds he is able to extract from the orchestra through blending.
  • 
    
    
• Bernard Hermann - "Scene D'Amour" from Vertigo & "The Death Hunt" from On Dangerous Ground
• • Listen to the expressive power of the strings. Also, pay close attention to his choices in instrumentation in terms of function (i.e. melody, accompaniment, and bass)

Closing Thoughts

Some other things you can do to become a better orchestrator are:

• Learn as much as possible about each instrument. The more you know about each of the different instruments, the more comfortable you will feel giving parts to them. Get to know some orchestral musicians. They know more about their instruments than anyone else and can provide you with a wealth of invaluable knowledge.
• Read books on orchestration. The purpose of this article is to be a crash course in orchestration and was by no means meant to cover all the topics associated with orchestration. Go to your local library and check out some books on orchestration.
• Practice and experiment. There is no substitute for experience, so don't be afraid to try new things. Even if the results are not as favorable as you had hoped, you're learning. Over time you'll develop an arsenal of techniques that you can use to achieve any hue of expression you desire.

Furthermore, if you're going to steal, steal from the best. Why would you ever want to steal from an average composer? It's only going to make your music sound average. Steal from the best, and your music will reflect that.

Orchestration may seem intimidating at first, but the more you do it, the better you will get at it. The orchestra can be the most versatile medium you will ever use, so spend time to get comfortable with it. Leonard Bernstein said it best in his 1958 broadcast of his Young People's Concerts series, "The right music played by the right instruments at the right time in the right combination: that's good orchestration."

References:

• Rimsky-Korsakov, N. (1912). Principles of Orchestration. New York, NY: Dover Publications.
• Berlioz, H. (1855). A Treatise on Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration. New York, NY: Novello, Ewer and Co.
• Blatter, A. (1997). Instrumentation and Arranging: Second Edition. New York, NY: Schirmer Books.
• Shatzkin, M. (1993). Writing for the Orchestra: An Introduction to Orchestration. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
• Bruner, T. (1988). Basic Concepts of Arranging and Orchestrating Music. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications, Inc.
• Holm-Hudson, K. (2004). Guide to Instrumentation and Arranging. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky.
• Leonard Bernstein -- Young People's Concerts. Retrieved November 12, 2009 from Leonard Bernstein's Official Website

Anyone who knows the SomaTone Interactive Audio team knows how dedicated we are to good communication with our clients and team members. Our company culture is built on the belief that valuable, consistent & effective communication creates outstanding creative products and relationships. Since we are a team of creative designers (taking our clients vision and turning them into sounds), it is imperative for us to have sophisticated communication tools. (I personally am a self proclaimed communication junkie. Having spent 6 years training with leadership/communication training experts Landmark Education, 2 years certifying as a Neuro Linguistic Practitioner and 2 years in Laban Movement Analysis Training, I am always seeking better ways to communicate abstract ideas). Having refined a toolbox of useful communication techniques for the creative industry, I will share a few valuable ones we use often with our clients and each other to provide the best audio we can.

Creative Communication

We have organized all Creative Conversations into one of 4 categories:

1. Tool Based: Discussing creative design that would take place at a tool based level: i.e. EQ, Effects, Volume, Pan, etc
2. Sample/Instrument Based: Discussing creative design that would take place at the sample (or instrument) level: i.e. – sound effect recordings, instrument choices, tuning, etc.
3. Structural Based: Discussing creative design that would take place at the organizational level: i.e. – structure of song, layers of sound effects, layering of the instruments, phrasing, etc
4. Concept Based: Discussing creative design that takes place at the concept level: over all vision, textures of sound effects, textures of music, abstract discussions of creative vision, etc. (This will be covered in a future article as it is a big topic and one worth exploring in rich detail).

Let me give you an example:

Here are some of the funnier comments we have heard over the years of Producers trying to explain their vision for a sound:

“Make it sound like it is going home.”
“There is a fine line between fire and cheese.”
“Could it sound… …Well… …different?”
“It’s gotta have more, um, ya know, and less, well, ya know what I mean?”
“We want this sound to be like ‘Ahhhhhh!’. But no one has to scream, in fact it is not a voice, it should be more like a stone."

And our favorite: “I know what I don’t like” (sometimes this is useful but needs to be supported by knowing what you do like)

We will protect the innocent by not naming any names!

So let’s take a look at some of the ways we can break down the Audio Design Communication Tool Box known as TSSC

Tools

The tools all audio designers use, to some degree, are similar and in many ways variations of each other. We will focus on the most widely used and the most likely necessary for you to know about to help make valuable suggestions.

EQ

Just like you adjust the knobs or sliders in your car, so can the audio designer adjust the EQ on their system. EQ is short for Equalizer (although no one seems to use that term anymore) and it is an adjustment of the frequencies in the full audio/hearing spectrum. EQ can both be adjusted to the final mix (what audio engineers call the 2-track, mix down, final print, the bounce, etc), and to the individual sounds/instruments. Although EQ can get detailed and complex, we will divide up the EQ spectrum into 3 parts: Low End, Mid Range and High End. If you just know those terms, in can make a world of difference in communicating about the EQ changes:

1. Low End – as the name suggests is the part of the audio spectrum (on either an individual instrument or final mix) that deals with all the low thuds: i.e. kick drum, bass, low orchestra strings (bass), timpani, etc. It is important to note that each instrument might have representation in the different audio spectrums: i.e. – a kick drum’s thud is in the low end, while the snap of the kick on the head is in the mid range spectrum. To communicate effectively with you audio designer, it is not important for you to know the specifics of where everything is in the EQ spectrum (that’s what we learn for years and years!), but just the general areas (which are usually intuitive).
2. Mid Range – again as the name suggest this is the middle of the EQ range usually containing pianos, guitars, violas, clarinets, etc. (remember that bass and other instruments will have some representation here, but will be more heavily represented in other areas of the EQ spectrum). This is the area that can get the most “muddy”. If a mix sounds too cluttered, or heavy, too many instruments might be representing themselves in the mid range.
3. High End – Also as the name suggests, this is where all the high frequencies sit: i.e. – flutes, piccolos, high octaves on any instrument (the high keys on a piano, the high strings on a guitar), etc. If an instrument or mix is not bright enough (or too bright), this might be an area of the EQ spectrum to address.

• Brightness – Perhaps an instrument needs to be brightened up to hear it better, or the overall mix needs to be brighter so that it seams “clearer” (another word often associated with the high end of the EQ spectrum)
• Muddy – Perhaps there is too much going on in the mid range of an instrument or final mix and it sounds “bulgy” or “fat”. If something feels like it is taking up too much space in the music sonically, it is often in the mid range.
• Warmth/Hallow – if there is not enough mid range, it might feel as if the middle is dropped out. That is because the mid range gives the warmth of each instrument and often the “body” or textures that are pleasing to the ear. Too much will sound bulgy/muddy and too little will sound hallow or bodiless.
• Boomey or Heavy – this is often a description when there is too much low end in the instrument or mix. Perhaps the low end of the drums are just too loud, thumping away. Or the bass is too fat and boomey. This is likely to be addressed by the Low End.
• No Bottom – when there is no bottom you feel like there are no legs for the music to stand on. There is no weight to the audio and it has no impact in the low audio spectrum.

Effects

These are a bit easier then EQ (which is really the most complex of all the tools):

Reverb

This creates the echoey feel of being in an environment like a hall, theater, bathroom, studio, outside, etc. This effect is always added to the individual instruments (not to the final mix – although too much reverb on all the instruments will make the final mix sound very “reverby”). Key terms and their related effect are:

• Wet – this means there is a lot of the effect on the instrument (or the overall mix can sound too wet)
• Dry – not enough reverb is on the instrument and the instrument sounds too natural
• Depth – Reverb often gives the spatial perception that there is depth to the instrument, or distance between the listener and the instrument. Sometime you prefer more or less depth

Delay

This simply takes the sounds and repeats it again and again and again and…

• Wet and Dry are used in the same way here
• Faster or slower – the delay can go faster or slower and usually should be in sync with the tempo of the piece
• Sync/Out of Sync – The delay will usually sync to the overall tempo and give you each repetition in time with the song. If it is not, it is “out of sync”

Volume and Pan

Volume and Pan are the most simplistic of the tools used to change the sound, but often overlooked.

Volume

It is often easy to identify an instrument that is too loud (or too soft), but volume can also be used to reduce an overly-complicated piece of music, bring the melody more to the forefront, or help sculpt a sound effect better. Volume will give more or less presence to something (depending on whether it is loud or soft). Words and phrases like: "subtle", "bold", "in your face", "off in the distance", "closer/further away" – are all related to volume changes.

Pan

This is the location in the stereo field of an instrument or sound effect. Often forgotten or ignored, this is a powerful tool that (especially combined with volume) can cause a sound to feel like it is moving. This is a great way to create “perspective”, “movement”, “position” or “change” (all words that relate to pan). For those of you that work in Surround, this is a must to explore.

Sample/Instrument

This is where music and sound effects diverge a bit, so we will discuss them separately.

Music

The instrument level discussions are incredibly important. This is the raw input you will be using to build your final product. Without the understanding of how to communicate your desires at this level, your composer might fundamentally start in a different direction then your vision.

1. Instrument selection – knowing your instruments and what sounds they make is vital. What instrument do you request when you want western music? (Dobro, Fiddle and Harmonica) How about Hawaiian? (Lap Steel, Ukelele and Stringed Bass) Relying on your composer to know these instruments is fine, but it is to your advantage to understand the layers and how these instruments work in each style of music. How about orchestral? (there can be hundreds of instruments). Or in a cinematic/film score – this could be any combination of orchestral instruments with modern instruments… Approaching your composer with a sense of what you like and dislike in the style of music you are trying to get is very helpful. (Note: Also, a good understanding of musical genres is important here. Asking for electronic music is too vague. There are hundreds of styles of electronic music. Knowing whether you want Downtempo, Break Beat, House, Electro, etc. is very helpful. This goes for all other genres too. There are lots of sub genres in every genre. Spending a couple evenings going through iTunes and listening to the different radio stations (which are clearly labeled by Genre and sub genre), while trying to clearly identify what instrument is doing what, will do wonders for your ability to communicate about the music.)
2. Performance – another part that makes up the instrument category is the performance of the musician. Sometimes the musician is your composer, sometimes the composer is producing other musicians. The performance of the individual instrument is key to a good sounding piece of music
3. Instrument/Sample Quality – the instruments/samples used for each recording should be the best available or to your liking. Although you do not have to know the difference in the quality of a Martin Guitar versus a Gibson Guitar, (or a Les Paul versus a Fender), if the quality of the instrument does not work for you, that should be individually addressed.

Sound Effects

A sound designer is using a very different type of sample building process. This will fit into one of three categories:

1. Organic Sample – this is a recording of an organic, real life sound: i.e. – Footsteps on gravel, door closing, explosions, etc.
2. Synthesized Sound – sound generated from a synthesizer (virtual or hardware). In case you are not fully hip on today’s sound design tools, many are virtual and are highly sophisticated sound generating engines with all sorts of complex synthesis going on. Few sound designers are still using physical hardware. These virtual synthesizers are called Virtual Instruments or sometimes Plug Ins.
3. Hybrid – since the Virtual Synthesizers need a source of sound, sometimes they use a fully synthesized sound generator, or they can take the organic recording and process it through its synthesizer engine to create an entirely morphed creation. i.e. taking a recording of a cow mooing, and processing it through a virtual synthesizer (by slowing it down, pitch shifting it way down and adding some synthesis magic to it) can give you a ferocious roar of a demon creature.

Structural

Structural based discussions start to lead into the concept, but are still technical, so we separate them for purpose of thoroughness. These conversations are again different for music and SFX:

Music

When music is being designed, each composer should be able to (not that they do) literally chart out the structure of the piece they are writing. Here are some important structural words you should know to help sculpt changes to the music:

• Tempo - also called BPM, which stands for Beats Per Minute, is the speed or pulse at which the song is maintained. If you tap your foot to the beat, this is the Tempo/BPM. It is good to have a vague idea of the BPM you are looking for (using words like up-tempo (BPM of 120+), mid tempo (100-119 BPM) and downtempo (80-99) are very useful for a composer. Note: these are not absolute definitions, but are generally accepted.) Tempo can change in a song to pick up or slow down (tempo changes can create a very dynamic feel and are challenging to pull off well in a piece of music).
• Time Signature – how many beats in a measure. Usually 4 beats (like in a regular pop song), or sometimes 3 (like in a waltz - but sometimes used in popular music). There are others, but much less encountered.
• Bar/Measure – each bar of music contains 3 or 4 beats depending on the time signature (and something completely else if the time signature is different – this again, is rarely encountered). To point to a particular Bar/Measure you want to address you can count from the beginning of the piece. (i.e. in bar 22, the saxophone is too loud.) Sometimes pointing out music based on the time (mins and secs) is more convenient depending on how the music is being reviewed.
• Melody – this is the hummable part of the song, always played with one note at a time. Usually this is very obvious and pronounced in the music, but sometimes melodies are subtle.
• Harmony – these are the surrounding notes or chords to the melody (if there is no melody, it is all harmony). This is basically everything else working together to create the music.
• Arrangement – this means two things: 1) the way the instruments are layered over each other, and 2) the way the song is played out linearly from beginning to end. Both of these uses are incredibly important in discussing the music. To be more precise about which one you are talking about we say the “Instrument Arrangement” (referring to the layers of instruments making up the song) or the “Song Arrangement” (referring to the sections and order of sections in the song).
• Verse – the part of the song that contains a different melody each time it is played (and different lyrics if applicable)
• Chorus – the part of the song that contains the same melody each time (and lyrics if applicable)
• Bridge – different section than the Verse or Chorus, usually connects two choruses
• Intro – the introduction to the song, or the build up to the verse
• Outro – the end of the song, after the last chorus
• A section – when there is no verse/chorus structure, we might refer to the first section as the “A” section. The second section will then be referred to as the “B” section and the third as the “C” section (sometimes A means verse, B means chorus and C means Bridge)
• Climax – the highest or most dramatic part of the song
• Build – this is an area that will build to a climax or might build to a specific section
• Tension/Release – this is a type of structure where one uses tense sections of music and then releases them into pleasing resolved parts – this helps bring drama but not make the piece overly tense.
• Call and Response – a style where the melody (or Rhythm) of one instrument will be reflected back by another instrument playing a similar melody (or Rhythm) sequentially (one after another).

Sound Effects

Structurally, sound effects can be found individually or in sequences. Although there is not much to say about the structure of sound effect design (the juicy stuff is in the concept phase). What is important to note here is the way sound effect designers use layers. Often effects are layers of individual sound effects all working together to create a final sound or sequence. Teasing apart the individual layers (or adjusting them with Volume, Pan, Effects, etc), can often make a difference when trying to revise an effect.

Go Get Em!

Armed with new tools, a deep perspective on creative design and a whole new world of being able to relate to your audio professionals, I look forward to hearing the audio you will create for your games! Have fun! If you are interested in hearing the new soundtracks coming from the SomaTone Interactive Audio Team – check us out at www.somatone.com.

One of my favorite teachers at Berklee College of Music used to always say, “The sum is made up of the parts! Pay attention to the parts and pieces from the beginning!” So let’s explore the parts of audio that come together to make the whole experience. Some of you might be more experienced with working on music/audio, but if you are not familiar with the digital studio of the new millennium – sequencers, virtual instruments and post production/composition lingo – you could still be in the dark when it comes to really communicating in ways that help the sound designer translate your vision into sound.

To begin to clarify, the word Sound Designer, especially in the game industry, has somehow become the common term for the audio professional making the sound. However, in the audio world, a sound designer is someone who is literally designing sounds. This means, most of the time, the sfx person (occasionally this could refer to someone designing sounds/textures for a composer – like Trent Reznor’s sound designer who creates sounds/noises that he ends up composing with). Often in the Advertising Industry the term sound designer means both the sound effects person and composer – mainly because in lots of commercials, it is hard to distinguish between general sound scapes as sfx or music. However, in the game industry, there is a clear distinction between composers and sound designers. If you applied for a job at Lucas Arts as a sound designer, no one would expect you to come in with a guitar and start writing music.

So, when talking with your “Sound Designer” - if that is their job title in your company – that person is likely thinking about sound effects and music separately in both the creation and integration – with distinctive language, tools and approaches to both.

This article will give you lots of tools to have effective conversations with your composer about technical changes. Stay tuned for the next article where I explore effective ways to discuss creative content design, more tools and a deep breakdown of the process of music and SFX design.

Tools of the Trade

is so good these days, that you only need 2 computers (at most, some guys can just get away with one), a bunch of software and maybe a great microphone. From this setup one can compose a full orchestra or make a movie sound like a movie (including the score and sfx). Usually you will see a Mac & a PC (or just one or the other), a small keyboard controller, a nice desk, a set of good pro speakers (one of the most important parts of the studio – don’t forget the sub woofer!), some sort of acoustical treatment to make the room “mix” ready (maybe a little tracking room to record live instruments/VO), and a refrigerator to keep the audio specialist up all night for your projects, which has crazy deadlines. Yes, there are some guys who love to have more – a real piano, a nice tracking room, a cushy client coach, etc., but those are really unnecessary frills to get the job done in games. These studios/work stations are commonly referred to as DAW’s – Digital Audio Work Stations.

One main tool your sound designer and composer will use is a sequencer or audio design software. The industry standard is ProTools and Logic. Logic only runs on a Mac and after years of using ProTools, it is a general consensus that you want to be running that on a Mac as well. This means your audio specialist is likely to be a Mac user! Be sensitive to that as we Mac users realize that everyone else in the business world uses a PC! (Especially since we create audio for games that are mostly PC based). Obviously your audio specialist must know a PC well also. Some audio professionals chose to work solely on a PC (especially when they specialize in game audio) because games are mainly created on and for PC users or PC platforms. If they are mainly PC users, they may use a program called Cubase (this seems to be the PC software of choice – although some use Sonar or other programs). You don’t need to know the details of the programs, but this way you are familiar with their tools. There are some additional specialty programs - like we use Peak (on the Mac) to master all our audio at SomaTone (some use Sound Forge on the PC – we will discuss mastering later), Ableton Live for loops and Virtual Instrument hosting (or Acid on the PC – we will discuss virtual instruments later) and Reason is a popular program for some audio professionals. Amedeus is a great editing tool and can convert to OGG files efficiently. All these extra tools are just for your knowledge to understand that the audio professional needs several tools to get the job done.

Steps to Creating Audio

Understanding the steps to production will help you isolate where a problem is coming from to help correct it:

For Sound Design:

1. Pre Production
2. Recording Sounds
3. Editing & Sound Sculpting
4. Mixing
5. Delivery

1. Pre Production
2. Writing
3. Recording
4. Editing/Mixing
5. Mastering

Sound Designer

Pre Production

This is where the creative conversations take place (we will talk about effective creative conversations in the next article), reference material is found (this is a great time to reference another film, game or project that contains sound design that you like or dislike), integration and audio engine considerations take place here as well.

Recording Sounds

The sound designer might need to (or choose to) record original sounds for a palette they will use later. These are sometimes labeled Foley Sessions (sound effects sessions that are related to materials being used to create sounds – footsteps, bags being hit together, rustling of clothing, smashing of things, anything you can think of can be recorded here.) Another option is to purchase a massive library of pre-recorded sounds. Be aware that, a sound designer having purchased libraries does not make the sound design finished. A good sound designer will layer sounds, sculpt sounds and use all sort of audio/editing tricks to get an appropriate sound for a game. At SomaTone, although we have an enormous library of digitized pre-recorded sounds, we still find ourselves recording new material constantly to layer it over existing material.

Editing & Sound Sculpting

This is where the sound design starts to come together. The sound designer will begin sculpting the sound, through editing features on his sequencer. They might use effects (like reverb, delay, flangers, EQ), use fades/crossfades, layer many sounds on top of each other, take a pre-recorded sound and run it through a synthesizer to effect it, etc.

For example, the sound of a growl for an alien character in a game, might be (and there are an infinite amount of ways to make a sound – especially a non-organic/real one) a combination of a dog growl, a metal door slamming together, stones rubbing together and a harsh synth tone. This is where the creativity of the sound designer really starts to make a difference in the quality of the sounds. And there are many, many tricks that one can learn to make things come out like a sound that works for a game (like chaining effects together, time stretching/pitch shifting sounds or processing in advanced synthesis engines like Csound, Kyma, Metasynth or Reaktor). It is pretty much an “anything goes” approach, but a good sound designer has a sense of what should be layered in (both sounds and effects) to make a sound effective, clear and impactful. Good sound designers also know ahead of time what they are looking to hear and how they are going to roughly get there – this eliminates endless additions or tweaking.

Mixing

The sound designer will then mix all the individual elements of the sound to give the final sound and, separately, each sound efx proportionally with the others in the game, to give an equal balance from one sound to the next. These are simply volume (or referred to as Gain) adjustments.

Delivery

Once the sfx are mixed, the delivery of them should be kept at these levels and they need to be individually bounced out (keep reading for the definition of “bounced out”). This makes it easier for the programmer to integrate them and keep a dynamic sound to the game (instead of “normalizing” all the sfx – a process of making each sound as loud as it can be). If the sound designer is actually creating environment loops, they might choose to keep the “panning” (sound location in the 3-D space), or deliver a full looping file with all elements integrated. Often the final files are called “bounced out” meaning they are put into a final form (.wav, mp3, or OGG format) that can be posted or emailed (versus still sitting in the sequencer). Another term “2-track mix” means the final mix of the sound effect is in a 2 track form (this is your basic stereo track with a Left and Right channel – like a regular musical CD). The “2 Track” is usually referred to when the sound effect track is continuous - versus the individual elements being delivered. Another common term is “Sound EFX Stem” – this comes from the film industry where you have just the sound effect separately - versus having them mixed in with the music or dialogue. Sound EFX stem and 2 Track are interchangeable – if you are only talking about the sfx (because some 2 Track mixes can have the music and dialogue “married” or mixed together.)

Composers

Pre-Production

This is where the creative conversations take place (we will talk about effective creative conversations later), reference material is found (this is a great time to reference another film, game or project that contains a score that you like or dislike), integration and audio engine considerations take place here as well. In the film world, you would have a “spotting session” here, which means the director and composer would get together and go through the whole film to pick out “cue points” – or places where the music should be synced to the film edits/emotional content. This can be done for games as well – even though games are not linear, they can have some linear elements in the early discussions.

Writing

The composer will go to work writing early sketches of the music. Every composer will compose slightly differently, so I will not attempt to layer one process over everyone, but from a macro scale, the composer will have at least two phases – 1) rough ideas or ideas in progress and 2) final compositions (“pre-mixed” or not mixed). Many composers are concerned about giving rough or not finished compositions to producers for fear that they will not be able to hear the final musical vision from the rough sketch.

Recording

Once rough ideas are started (or if the composer likes to start immediately writing in their sequencer), recording the parts can begin.

Let me share about the writing/recording process a bit. The writing/recording process will often start with melodies, chords or drum beats (if a score is going to be really textural or out of the norm, the writing process might start with a concept – i.e. banging on a piano to create a horror feel, etc). Then the composer begins to layer instruments in the sequencer on different “tracks”. To explain what a “track” is, imagine a racetrack where several cars are all driving. However, each car is restricted to staying within their own lane. This is how a track in the recording world works. You can have one track for guitar, then another track for bass, another track for vocals, and another track for drums. When you play all the tracks back simultaneously, you get a fully orchestrated song. This is why it makes it possible for one composer to play and record all these different instruments separately and then play them back together. Tracks in the DAW are limitless – for the most part. So you can have 80 tracks if you have 80 different instruments in the orchestra all playing at the same time and recorded on a separate track.

In the cave man days, we had real instruments :) Now a days, we have samplers that trigger recordings of real instruments. And if you have amassed a good sample library of instruments, you can have incredibly realistic sounding instruments from every corner of the world at your fingertips. Sprinkle in some good “programming” (this is what it is called when a composer plays an instrument, like a flute, on a keyboard) chops and you can create incredibly realistic sounding orchestras, world compositions and beautiful scores. If you are still a skeptic of the quality of sampled instruments go check out “Ivory” from Synthology or Symphonic Choirs from East West. These samplers will knock your socks off. If your composer is using cheap or bad samples this will show up by the piece sounding too “midi”, “fake”, “synthesized” or cheap. Feel free to request better samples; there are incredible samples out there for every instrument on Earth. Since composers should be constantly updating their sample libraries, or spending time creating them through recordings, this should be a major reason why you chose to work with a composer or not. You will know right away by listening to the horns, pianos, strings, guitars, etc, if your composer is using high quality samples or not. The instruments should sound like they are played by live players since most good sample libraries are recordings of live players now a days.

As the composer layers each track with new instruments, harmonies, melodies, etc, they are creating their final vision (or trying to find one, depending on how they like to write). We believe a composer should have a clearly defined vision of what they are going for and should be able to clearly explain it, before they even start writing anything. This means you should be able to have meaningful conversations with your composer about where they are headed (by meaningful I mean you should understand in non-musical terms what the result will be – we will look at this later as this is a communication process in itself) at anytime during the creative process. If a composer has lost the vision, it is likely they are lost in general in their composition.

Some producers ask for initial sketches of music to make sure the music is headed in the right direction. A word of caution about this: often musicians are concerned that their finished work will not be able to be envisioned by someone who isn’t them, or isn’t a composer.

Let me give you a personal example. When I compose, one of the mix engineers might stop in my studio to hear how things are going. I often get a funny look like “what are you doing man?”, and then they leave confused. However, once I get all the parts I envision into the songs (with complex orchestral orchestrations, many times it can sound like nothing until all the parts are playing together), they will come back in and totally get it! A sigh of relief will be given from them as they realize they just couldn’t hear the final vision from the initial sketches. You and your composer will have to work out when the right time is to listen to early sketches, just remember that you cannot always hear the composer’s internal masterpiece in initial sketches. But again, the composer should be able to clearly explain to you where they are going with the sketch.

Editing/Mixing

Once the basic instruments and parts are all put into the song, the composer will move into an editing/mixing stage. Cutting and pasting music like words in a word document, the composer will begin to edit parts together or use editing tricks for a specific effect (often used in electronic music these days, i.e. – stutter or vocal edits).

The mix will begin coming together here as well. The mix is comprised of volume levels of all the instruments, the panning (3-D placement of an instrument in the sonic space), reverbs, delays, EQ, flangers & special effects.

The mix is one of the most important and often overlooked components of a song. More often than not, a composer is not a mix engineer and will admit that their biggest weakness is in mixing their music. The mix is where all the parts start to get shaped and molded together into a cohesive piece of music. Mixing involves a musical and technical understanding of compressors, reverbs, delays, frequency response, EQ’s, special effects (phasers, flangers, etc.), the big picture, dynamics, automation, de-essers, limiters, expanders, etc. Most problems, mistakes and issues are created, discovered and fixed in the mix. At SomaTone we have a dedicated multi-platinum mix engineer mixing everything that goes out the door. And it is night and day what comes in from our composers and goes back out to the client – once run through a proper mix process.

Without getting too technical, let’s look at a few very important parts of the mix so that you can understand what to suggest instead of “it just seams too cloudy!”

Volume

One basic part of the mix is volume – some instruments will need to simply be made quieter or louder. BUT don’t forget that your composer has the ability to “ride” the volume, or create dynamic changes in the music. The strings don’t need to sit static at the same volume through a passage – it is not either loud or soft. Expect and demand from your composer that the mix sound DYNAMIC. This is one of the most forgotten parts of music from young composers. Keep the music and parts moving and create tension and release through the volume.

Pan

Pan is often overlooked too. This is where an instrument is placed in the stereo field. You will be amazed how much space opens up in music when instruments are properly panned in the sonic space. Imagine a jazz trio all standing in the same place trying to play. It would sound “crowded”, because it is! If the music/mix sounds crowded, or too much, all happening at once, it could be improper panning (although it could be too much playing per instrument also). Also, panning can help separate frequencies that are all competing for space. If a mix is too muddy try requesting the panning be addressed a little more.

EQ

This is a secret weapon among mix engineers. A good EQ job can make a world of difference. Make sure that different instruments are not competing for the same frequency space. Make sure that instruments containing lots of mids and highs (in the frequency spectrum) like guitar and piano, are “rolled off” or have no or little low end competing with the bass. If your mix sounds muddy, or two bright/harsh, this is the area you want to recommend your composer address.

Effects

Reverb and Delay are two common effects in music. Reverb gives you the spatial relationship that the instrument has to the room it is in (reverb is actually just a long delay repeated very closely). If you want a dry violin sample to sound like it is in a cathedral, crank up the reverb (or use a little delay). Of course too much is described as sounding “wet”. If you feel the mix needs more dimensionality perhaps individual instruments need more reverb (or delay depending on the type of music). Or if the mix feels too loose and sloppy sounding, it might need less reverb to tighten up the cohesion of the instruments working together.

Compressors

Compressors work to stabilize the sound in the sonic space, by making it not have as much of a dynamic range (in this instance, sometimes you want to reduce the dynamic range to cause the sound to feel more controlled). If a sound is too wild, or too dynamic, using a compressor will help reel it in.

Mastering

Does you composer hand in fully mastered recordings? If not, they should be! Mastering is a process of taking the final mixed 2 Track (or music composition) and running it through one more stage of audio processing. This stage of audio processing will usually contain: multi band compression (to restrain the dynamic edges of the mixed tracks a bit), limiting (squeezing the music to the loudest point before distortion – this also removes some of the dynamic range) and perhaps a bit of EQ to adjust any levels for the whole track. This stage is what gives it that “radio quality”.

When you sit in your car and tweak the knobs on the EQ, you are mastering (or affecting the master recording) the song in your car (of course the song on the radio has already been mastered professionally!). You will notice that each time you mix and then master (or use a compression stage) you are limiting the dynamics of the piece. In order to properly get a professional sound and keep the dynamics of the piece (so it doesn’t just sound flat dynamically), the mixer/mastering engineer must really know what they are doing. If your composer is not handing in mastered tracks, you will know it because it will sound weak when played against a reference piece of music in the same genre. Also, it will be quieter then other pieces of music played at the same volume on your stereo or computer.

Next Time

This gives you lots of tools to have effective conversations with your composer about technical changes. Stay tuned for the next article where I explore effective ways to discuss creative content design, more tools and a deep breakdown of the process of music and SFX design. Until then!

The new console era is upon us. It has been met by developers everywhere with great anticipation, promise, …and yet, reluctance. Programmers have spent a large portion of the past decade squeezing every last bit of potential from our PS2s, Xboxes and Gamecubes. Now, after tricking these machines into performing beyond their expectations, the shackles of technology have been lifted yet again. But will the next generation consoles guarantee better audio?

No. We can certainly expect more audio due to an increase in available memory, and the ability to add additional content within BD-ROM and dual layer DVD-ROM formats. But what makes audio sound good doesn't necessarily have anything to do with performance and delivery specs. Surely, our ability to manipulate audio will improve, but it will mean nothing if the content doesn't deliver. This article focuses on sound creation, and will enable you to pave the way for effective and successful interactive game sound.

You have the ability to put the creative spark in motion and keep it moving regardless of which game format you are developing. Knowing and preparing your sound team as well as understanding the processes through which they work, will ultimately help you to keep the audio on track, both artistically and financially.

II. The Audio Team

A few years back, I was scoring a short animated film. One of the animators for this film held a day job at a well-known entertainment company that had just released a CG movie about dinosaurs. I asked him what he did on that project, to which he replied, "I did all the toenails."

I couldn't help but think of the army of people responsible for the teeth, eyes, scales, and so on. None-the-less, I saw the movie and it was visually stunning. Realistically, game budgets will not allow for such an extravagant audio team, but it does illustrate a good principle: that your audio personnel have well-defined roles with which to focus their efforts. Collectively, your audio will be that much better for it.

Game budgets once mandated that production costs stay low, so it wasn't unusual to find that one or two people produced all of a game's audio. Today, the stakes are much higher, and so are the budgets. Consumer expectations have grown, requiring a movie-like experience within the confines of their homes. The interactive market has become a battlefield for franchise superiority. Bland, over-used audio must not be the exposed link in the armor of any publisher or developer.

Whether you are using an in-house audio department or outsourcing the audio completely, it is important that individuals have well-defined roles that do not cross over into the other aspects of sound production. If the Audio Director is splitting time as the Sound Designer, and the Sound Designer is also the Composer, you can be sure that none of these shared jobs will get the proper attention they require. It is important to obtain a list of your entire audio team that breaks down the responsibilities of each member. Use your sound budget to fortify any areas in sound production that need particular emphasis. We will discuss more on budgets later, but for now let's start at the beginning.

III. Communicating the Vision: Pre-production

A. Early Bird Catches the Worm

By their very nature, creative people are passionate about what they do. You shouldn't have difficulty finding the enthusiasm amongst your sound team. Yet this inherent motivation is not something to be left without guidance. You will be doing your budget as well as your team's morale, a disservice by letting your sound team simply "have at it". When it comes time to add sound, the sound designers have both an advantage and a disadvantage compared to the other production team members.

The advantage is, that by the time the game is ready for audio creation, the game has taken real shape and personality. This helps to guide the direction of the sound effects design. The disadvantage is, that since the sound design is one of the last stages to be developed, previously fallen deadlines become the responsibility of the sound design team to make up. By bringing your sound designers up to speed early, you can avoid costly third and fourth revisions.

B. The Documents, Please!

Giving the sound team the most recent build to play, only gives them a partial picture of the artistic direction of the game. The sound team, like the art department, must understand the metamorphosis of the game's characters and landscapes.

To do this, compile a book or digital archive that chronologically depicts the artwork, from the earliest sketches to the final in-game representations. Arrange an in-depth meeting between the sound designers, composer and the Art Director to discuss the game's development from an artistic standpoint. This will help your audio team create the proper palette of sounds in much the same way an artist creates a palette of colors.

For story-driven games, distributing copies of the script will be necessary to illustrate the motivation and goal of the game. While this is critical for composers, the sound designers will benefit by the added sense of immersion into the game.

Perhaps the best form of communicating the vision will come from the Game Designer. The game designer works tirelessly in his pursuit to create "the best game ever". He is never short of words when describing the intent of the game. Though his work is creative, his methods are mostly technical. No one understands the abilities of the characters in such detail as the game designer, as the great number of technical documents he produces will attest. These documents are invaluable to the audio team. By thoroughly examining level overviews and enemy specs, both sound designers and composers can create complimentary aural depictions. Bosses that are slow but powerful, or enemies that are stealthy will be revealed in great detail within these documents, providing the backdrop from which the sound designers can create.

C. The Demos - Getting on the Same Page

Once the above preproduction steps have been completed, it's time for the sound design team and composer to begin creating demos from game capture. Create three to four movies 60 to 90 seconds in length from different levels in the game. Be sure to include the ambient portion prior to the action in order to hear the game shift from low to high levels of activity. However, this may not be possible for some arcade style games.

Once the sound design and music are complete, a mix of all the audio content should be performed by the Sound Lead or Audio Director in either stereo, surround or both, and exported with the movies for review.

It is important to have in place a team of reviewers that appropriately represent those who have creative input. These might include, but are not limited to, the Developing Producer, Publishing Producer, Executive Producer, Associate Producer, Game Designer, Art Director, Audio Director and a franchise representative if applicable. A robust review team will help generate an accurate and collective review. If changes in the demonstration audio are required and then subsequently agreed upon, your audio is ready for production.

IV. Sound Design Production

A. Emotional Response to Sound

From the beginning we have been programmed to respond to sound. A mother's voice, a church bell, or police sirens conjure an emotional response. Sounds help us to decipher the world around us. They warn us of danger, call us to action and bring peace and tranquility to our lives. The more expressive the sound is, the greater our emotional response to it. Sound effects correctly placed in a game should evoke this response while defining the environment, circumstance and personas on screen. Due to the random nature by which sounds are triggered in a game, they must effectively co-exist without losing definition or character when multiple sounds occur in close proximity to each other. Let us examine some general observations in game sound design.

B. Beware of Sonic Sludge!

There is a finite amount of sound data that the ear can properly interpret before fatigue sets in. It is the role of the sound programmer or director to prioritize which sounds are most important and at what times they are important. The sound designer on the other hand, must always create content that will be effective, regardless of the circumstances that exist at the time a sound is played. Good sound effects should work well alone and in combination with many other sounds. This is a challenging task, but careful forethought and planning will produce a rich, dynamic and satisfying interactive soundscape.

The key to preventing sonic fatigue is to create sound effects that vary in volume and frequency in relation to each other. A single sound effect that is loud and contains equal amounts of low, middle and high frequencies may be effective when played alone, but if all the sound effects are loud and contain a similar frequency spectrum, it becomes difficult to decipher one sound from the next.

In most cases, the sound designer delivers the sounds at a reasonably loud volume, to allow the audio director or programmer to appropriately mix those sounds into the game, setting the playback volume for each sound. However, it is the job of the sound designer to emphasize different frequencies according to the requirements of each sound. To do this, the designer must know which sounds are likely to be played together at any given time, then selectively decide which sounds will emphasize specific frequencies. Higher frequencies provide detail. Upper middle frequencies provide presence, while lower frequencies depict power or energy. Too much emphasis on high and upper-middle frequencies will lead to fatigue, while too many sounds containing lower or sub frequencies, will become muddy and detract from the overall detail of the sound design. The goal is to create individual sounds that do not compete, but compliment. With this in mind, the sound designer must appropriately focus on the frequencies that will best suit each sound effect. This process essentially carves out any unnecessary sound space to allow additional room for other sound effects to be heard. When volumes and frequencies are selectively assigned, the sound effects will breathe and compliment each other regardless of when they play.

C. Pacing - Building Toward Climactic Moments

Now let's examine the sound design from the "Big Picture" perspective. Game and level design documents will provide the structure of the game in terms of moments of emphasis. Generally, these structures take the form of peaks and valleys that convey changes in difficulty as the game progresses. Usually, the peaks represent a boss fight, though not necessarily so. When examined as a whole, the sound design should appropriately compliment these arching structures, and allow, from a sound perspective, a sense of building toward these peak moments. If the sound designer has examined the enemies and situations thoroughly, the overall sound design will naturally fall into place, appropriately following the peaks and valleys within the game. However, if for example, minions sound as powerful as bosses, some adjustment will be necessary to bring down the emphasis of these weaker and less difficult enemies. By not doing so will result in sound design that does not match the arching pattern of the game. To put it simply, there can be "too much of a good thing". Let's now look at the specific areas of game sound design.

D. Ambience - Defining Environments Through Sound

Initially, ambient sound should effectively portray the setting, location and time frame of the game or its various levels. For instance, percussion and double reed music, a multitude of bartering voices and distant clanking iron would suggest a medieval marketplace. As the game progresses the role of the ambient sound is to support the circumstances with which the player is involved. Does the sound within the environment evoke danger or safety? Activity or inactivity? Conversely, ambience can be used to deceive the player through suggesting a false circumstance, such as creating a sense of calm before an ambush. Under all these conditions, good ambient sound should portray a living environment.

The psychological impact of ambient sounds can add much to the onscreen imagery, though not physically present in the scenery. For instance a distant, sustained cry of an infant suggests vulnerability or insecurity. A broken fence rattling in the wind of an abandoned city, suggests to the player a previous traumatic event. These are subtle examples used to arouse awareness in the player. More obvious sounds should be used to cue the player of his direct proximity to danger. Dark drones or muffled enemy vocalizations will prepare the player for fierce combat ahead. Fear, anticipation and anxiety are easily evoked by the careful placement of ambient sounds.

E. Impacts and Destruction - Breathing Death into the Non-living

Early on, comic books depicted the sound of the action scenes through the use of words that sonically mimicked the action. Over time, words like "thud" "pow" and "zap" lost their effectiveness. Comic book writers had to jog their imaginations to express sounds in more creative and exciting ways, such as "Kathwaaap', "fwuuuhmp" and so on. Similarly, the sound effects in early games experienced a renaissance as memory increased and streaming technology allowed for more and varied sounds to be launched under the animations. However, no increase in playback performance will ensure the effectiveness of the sound effects, if the sounds are not expressive.

From a sound perspective, impacts and destruction must primarily convey suffering and submission. These terms apply naturally to the vocal efforts triggered under an opponent or avatar under attack, but are more abstract when applied to inanimate objects. Since the human voice is the most expressive instrument in existence, applying human-like characteristics to the 'non-living', will help give the sounds a more life-like and expressive quality. Twisting, screeching metal, the deep thud and release of broken concrete and wood that creaks, pops and splinters convey expressive responses to the forces applied to them, in much the same way a grunt, moan and exhale expresses human injury.

Additionally, impacts and destruction sounds should proportionately depict the transference of energy between the weapon and the target. A metallic ping with a ricochet is an effective response to a bullet on metal, in which the transfer of energy between a low-mass object at high speed can be observed. A missile explosion, on the other hand, is more powerful and slower to develop, therefore requiring an equally proportionate response. The sound of larger impacts with destruction should develop through three basic phases: Attack, Sustain and Release.

The Attack is the first and shortest event of the three. It is important to note that the attack is not the sound of the weapon or projectile. In this case, a missile, contains it's own dry explosion sound that is launched under the animation of the missile explosion. Therefore the attack will be the impact sound based on the material composition of the target. Since the attack and the dry explosion of the missile will happen simultaneously, the attack should have a short period of 'lead-in' or silence to allow the peak, or initial part of the explosion of the missile to be heard uncompromised by the attack of the material impact.

Next is the Sustain, which introduces the debris and material breakdown created by the explosion. Over this phase, detail should be observed. The sustain should sound less dense than the attack so that the specific details of the destruction can adequately be heard.

The final phase is the Release, which is a response to the destruction that should characterize a kind of 'submission'. This phase of the destruction should contain lighter falling debris based on the materials destroyed, movement of dust and earth and perhaps steam.

When all three of these phases are exhibited, the destructions will sound more expressive and compliment the weapons by adequately portraying their explosive energy.

For "The Incredible Hulk - Ultimate Destruction" we maximized the detail and movement of large, explosive forces by dynamically altering the stereo field throughout the three phases of the destruction. The attack phase was almost entirely monophonic, while a quickly widening stereo field was applied to the sustain, finally resting on a wide and fixed stereo field for the release. The result was destruction that moved rapidly over a wide area, thereby adequately portraying the Hulk's enormous power.

F. Weapons - Know Thyself, Know Thy Enemy!

It is a lesser-known fact that a gunshot at close range, sounds less threatening than from 40 or even 80 yards away. Since most people have never fired a gun, their expectations for the sound of gunshots as depicted by the entertainment media are very high. Therefore, even in games based on historical simulation, some amount of sonic sweetening will be necessary. In the case of a "period" war game, multiple recordings of the specific weapon should be blended together to create a satisfying gunshot. These might include mixing together the various distances recorded for the gunshot, as well as the dry trigger and shell discharge sounds for the specific firearm. Sounds created this way will be sonically interesting while retaining the historical accuracy of the weapon.

For science-fiction or fantasy games, the imagination is the sound designer's only limitation. As mentioned previously, the design documents will shed light on the abilities of the enemies and characters within the game. The weapons detailed in this document should explain the amount of damage incurred by each weapon. It is important that these sounds appropriately match the damage potential, since the player will, to some extent, be judging the amount of damage from each weapon by the sound it creates. For example, weapons that contain a charge-up sound before firing, indicates to the player that a great amount of force is forthcoming. Likewise a weapon that produces a large discharge noise would produce the same result.

From a stylistic perspective, weapons are an extension of the personalities of each character and should compliment the character's physical attributes, abilities and in some cases, their heritage or history. For instance, the sounds of swords, knives and shuriken should be as stealthy as the master ninja who wields them. The character of these sounds should compliment the physical qualities exhibited by the ninja and reflect the mastery of the ninja tradition. With this in mind you should expect the sounds to be light but fierce, focused and evoke quickness of movement.

G. Vehicles

Since vehicle sounds typically respond to controller movements, and not animations, they can be difficult to perform in a plausible manner. Developers for racing games are likely to have robust code for manipulating vehicle sounds. Since we are focusing on sound production, and not programming, let's examine the basic elements that make up vehicle sounds.

In most cases the sound designer will provide four separate engine sounds per vehicle: an idle loop, acceleration, a steady thrust loop and a deceleration (engine decompression or braking). The idle will simply indicate that the vehicle is engaged. The acceleration and deceleration sounds should be designed to seamlessly crossfade into, and out of the steady thrust loop via programming. This formula is effective for simple vehicles with a low threshold of speed in which the vehicle will quickly reach maximum velocity until the button or trigger is released.

If the visual perspectives of the vehicle can be changed, so too should the sounds that accompany the vehicle. This will ensure a greater sense of realism. For instance, if inside and outside perspectives are available, subtle shifts in the observed engine sounds should be present to support the change in perspective. An inside perspective will result in a de-emphasis of the higher frequencies that are present within the engine sounds, giving those sounds the muffled quality one would expect when listening to the engine from inside. One way to perform this, is for the sound designer to supply separate versions of the engine sounds based on the perspective observed. If the sound designer has access to recordings from the various perspectives, this will be easy to supply. However if these sound perspectives are not available, or if the vehicle is fictitious, separate mixes that include changes in equalization should be performed in order to support the visual perspectives.

For added realism, intermittent sounds can be supplied to add feedback based on the driving conditions or the state of the vehicle while operating. For instance, wheel-based vehicles will contain surface noises used to indicate the terrain (tarmac, gravel etc.). Metallic rattling and scraping is used to indicate the state of a vehicle that is damaged. The addition of these and other intermittent sounds add a heightened sense of realism and immersion when operating the vehicle.

H. Menus - Less is More

As games have become more sophisticated, so too have the menus. Players can customize a variety of options as well as view or purchase an array of unlock-able content. This, of course requires more navigation. In most cases, sounds will accompany the navigation to provide greater sensory feedback. No matter how enjoyable these sounds may be, their repetition will soon become an annoyance. It is always safe to create short and subtle sonic events to accompany the menu navigation, so that the sound is felt rather than heard. This way the player can benefit from the additional sensory feedback, without being discouraged by the mere repetition of the sounds.

V. Music Production

A. The Underscore - Interactive vs. Film Music

Until recently, you simply could not compare game music to film music. Every aspect involved in their production, from budgets to performance, made it an impractical comparison. Today, these two media have a working relationship. Games are created to support movies and movies are made from successful game franchises. Film composers are now writing for games, and some game composers have made the transition to film. Hollywood orchestras and orchestrators are now commonly used for game music scores. Why make this comparison? Because even though the considerations involved in their creation are different, their effect and function are relatively the same.

B. Story Driven/Roleplaying Games

As the name suggests, the scores to story-driven games must primarily tell a story. To tell a story musically is a sublime art. A composer must be well versed in the work of his predecessors in order to understand what constitutes successful story telling using the language of music. Fortunately, centuries of music have been written for this purpose, allowing today's composer a foundation for developing this art. We now associate certain sonorities and rhythms with specific actions, emotions or locations. Compositions like Rossini's 'William Tell', Wagner's 'Tristan' and Holst's 'Planets' have laid the groundwork for these non-verbal associations. Film and television composers have since expanded on these motifs to help express the elements within a story.

A portion of story telling is to define the environment, both time and place. Musically, we draw influence from folk traditions for such a purpose. Through ethnomusicology we can effectively represent locations and time periods by incorporating traditional instruments, modes and progressions into the score. For instance, a tabla, tambour or sitar is appropriate for describing an Indian location. If such instruments are not available, the music may be orchestrated in such a way as to mimic these traditional sounds. A modern orchestra is greatly enhanced by the addition of folk elements for the purpose of describing a specific time and place.

Characters within a story are supported through the development of melodic themes and motifs associated with each character. Orchestrating the motifs throughout various instruments will provide a sense of character development as the game progresses. In addition, varying the harmonic support of these themes will reflect the character's physical, mental and emotional states.

Game music for the story and role genre must highlight the dramatic events in the story as well as drive the game-play. NIS and FMVs are the primary tools for advancing the storyline and scoring to these videos is generally a straightforward process. You must consider, however, that game-play is also a dramatic event that contributes to the overall development of the story. Herein lies the careful balancing act of supporting the story as well as the action, without the music sounding repetitious. Cross fading alternate versions and transitions, or layering individual tracks that are programmatically muted and un-muted, will secure the musical effectiveness over long periods. The programming methods of manipulating music within a game are beyond the intent of this article. Further reading from game development resources such as GameDev.net will provide a closer look at some of the programming methods used in game music playback.

B. Action/Arcade and Sports Games

The most basic function of game music is best exhibited in 'arcade' style games in which the overall gaming experience is enhanced by the addition of adrenaline-surging music. The music helps to drive the action, thereby heightening the intensity of the experience. For this reason, it's very common for these games to license tracks from well-known, marketable artists with a track record of producing music that translates to the listener. The interactive potential of this music, has thus far been very low. However, as many artists are also avid gamers, they are beginning to show interest in lending their talent toward interactive soundtrack design, if not producing tracks in their entirety.

Generally speaking, the interactivity of the music in arcade-style games rarely moves beyond loops and stings. In many cases, this is all that is required. However, as the complexity of arcade-style games grow, so must the level of musical interactivity. The music for these games should support any changes in game-play. Power-ups, signature moves and multiple damage are all examples commonly reserved for the sound design to immerse the player in the action, but are appropriately expressed through music as well. A deep understanding of the game-play will reveal to the composer, new areas to interactively enhance an otherwise monotonous arcade soundtrack.

VI. Full Motion Video (FMV)

Since the FMV is a controlled environment, it is tempting for the sound designer to elaborate on the sound effects. While in some cases, it may be appropriate to heighten the dramatic impact of the story; great care should be maintained to be consistent with the in-game sound design. An incredible-sounding FMV is surely a joy to behold, however, if the in-game sounds do not hold up to the FMVs, the playing experience will be diminished. The purpose of the FMV is to dramatically move the storyline, and to provide a break in the action. Since Most FMVs occur after completing a level, there is an inherent sense of reward when viewing the FMV. The sound design should pay respect to this as long as it doesn't stray too far from the in-game sound. The FMV should act as a seamless transition into and out of the game play. In my opinion, it is best to use in-game sounds within the FMV wherever in-game movements or actions are present.

The second consideration for FMV sound is the mix of all the sound elements. All dialog, sound effects and music should be mixed at comparable levels to the in-game mix, unless there is a dramatic motivation for stressing one over the other.

VII. Sound Reviews

The Beta date is just around the corner. Your sound team has worked countless hours, and is nearing the finish line. You might think it's time to examine the sound for any necessary revisions. Well by this time it's probably too late. As mentioned earlier, the sound team is generally the last in line to begin creating their content. Add to this, the fact that all previously missed deadlines becomes their burden to make-up. Your sound team will likely be delivering content right up to the last minute. You will need to have in place a regular and effective reviewing mechanism to stay on top of the direction of the game sound.

Using the same group of reviewers used for the demo phase, create a questionnaire that rates the general aspects of the sound. Rating each individual sound would be time-consuming, so use categories of sounds and include room for comments or explanations. By assembling the various questionnaires, you will be able to develop a consensus opinion that will reveal spots that need further attention. If this is performed in a timely and periodic fashion, your sound team will be best able to manage the revisions, as they are needed.

VIII. Got Your Sound Budget? Use it!

A. Your Simple Checklist

Today's games are competing with each other on every level. Sound is no exception. You must secure the best resources possible for your sound team. This will require that you use your budget wisely, and use all of it.

Prior to beginning the sound effects production, ask yourself the following questions.

1. Is your sound team complete? (i.e. sound designer(s), supervising/Lead sound designer, composer, audio director and audio programmer)
2. Is each member of the sound team assigned a specific task uncompromised by additional or overlapping roles?
3. Is your sound team assigned only to your project?
4. Does your sound team have enough time to complete your project?
5. Does your sound team have the adequate resources necessary for your specific game? These include sonically treated work spaces, equipment, software and sound effects libraries that are compatible with the needs of your game.
6. Does your sound team have a demonstrated track record of producing sound within the style and genre of your project?

If you answered "yes" to all of these questions, your sound design team is properly equipped, prepared and ready for production. Answering "no" to any of these questions will tell you where you will need to focus portions of your budget.

B. Outsourcing

If the sound team is incomplete or in any way compromised, you should consider outsourcing an appropriate amount of the workload to game audio specialists. Look for companies and people that have a strong resume of interactive sound production, and have successfully produced sound for "high profile" titles. If your game has special stylistic needs, then consider companies that have a track record of producing sound for similar titles.

C. Foley

The overall 'theme' of your game will help dictate where you may need additional resources. A historically based game will require authenticity; therefore consider obtaining fresh recordings of historically accurate weapons and vehicles. If your game focuses on destruction, a sizeable Foley session may be appropriate to produce original content unencumbered by overused sound effects libraries. A small but well organized recording session can give your game a lot of fresh spark without breaking the budget.

IX. Marketing Your Sound

Game marketing has typically focused on the creator, developer or the voice actors within the game. In many cases, sound can be used as a marketing tool as well. For "The Incredible Hulk - Ultimate destruction" we hired some of Hollywood's finest sound recordists to coordinate a Foley session that would produce the raw destruction sounds we needed to create the sound effects necessary for this game. Our session took place at an auto-dismantling yard in a southern California desert. A giant forklift and bulldozer were used to drop, drag and tear apart cars, vans and trailers. Multiple video cameras captured the session for future use on the "Behind-the-scenes" reel. The added benefit was the marketability achieved by everyone's dedication to producing the most destructive sounding game to date. Your ability to market your game's sound will also help raise any additional finances needed to bring your sound up to the next level.

Steve Kutay is the co-founder of Radius360 an award-winning audio Post Production company, specializing in sound for film and games, located in Los Angeles, California. For more information please visit www.radius360.com or contact Steve at steve.kutay@radius360.com.

©2006 Steve Kutay, Radius360. This article may be posted in partial or entirety as long as credit is given to Steve Kutay, Radius360 and www.radius360.com

Piano – Soft
Forte – Loud
Mezzo – Medium
Issi – A word that pretty much means "very." The more "issi"s there are, the more "very"s there are.

• Building up: This type of beginning is one where you start with something simple, say a drum solo, and then slowly the background to the theme comes in, and then more background, and then eventually the theme itself comes in. Sometimes the background (the music that would be playing in the background while the theme would be playing) is just playing by itself, then comes the bass and/or drums, then comes the main theme. There is midi1.mid in the file attached to this article, an example of one of those songs. Don't worry if it sounds crappy, I only put it together in about five minutes.
• Introducing an alternate theme: Here, you start with a different theme and slowly introduce the other theme. For example, you play another theme, and then play a part of the theme, and then play the other theme, and then play the main theme, and then the other theme, and then again, and each time you play the main theme you play it louder and place more emphasis on the main theme and less on the alternate theme. Eventually the alternate theme stops and you play the main theme all the time. These intros are usually pretty long.
• No playing around: In here, you don't do any stuff in the beginning, instead you just play the theme, with all of the background and everything, starting from the beginning. This isn't really an intro, but for some themes, it works better than any of the others. This is what you will probably use if there is no ending to your song; if it will repeat over and over.
• With a cool intro: Here, you just play a cool intro that is really short, (maybe about four measures or so) and then it builds up, and then your theme plays in full force. Ever heard the Kurt Angle theme? That's pretty much a song that's like this.
• Combinations of the Above: Combinations of the above introductions can be done. For example, you could have number 4, then number 1. I do that a lot, especially for action songs, songs for battles.

• Write volume changes
• Gradually change volume
• Write the beginnings of songs
• Write the middles of songs
• Write the endings of songs

A good program to use is Microsoft's Direct Music Producer. It is free (Well, comes with the 128MB DirectX7 SDK, so you will have to pay the phone bill for downloading :-)), but has really a lot of great functionality. It can be used to write MIDI or WAV files - very good sound quality - using notation, you can use styles and patterns freely - just excellent. It also can write sound parts - that patterns, motifs and styles - in a format easy to read from you DirectX app.

A A#/Bb B C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A

sr=44100 ; Sample Rate
kr=22050 ; Control Rate
ksmps=2  ; sr/kr As far as I know this is always the case
nchnls=2 ; 1=mono, 2=stereo, 4=quad

instr 1          	; Instrument 1 begins here
aout  oscil 10000, 440, 1  ; An oscillator
  	outs  aout, aout 	; Output the results to a stereo sound file
  	endin            	; Instrument 1 ends here

;Table# Start TableSize TableGenerator Parameter  Comment
f1  	0 	16384 	10         	1      	; Sine

;Instrument# Start Duration
i1       	0 	1

; ORCHESTRA

sr=44100 ; Sample Rate
kr=22050 ; Control Rate
ksmps=2  ; sr/kr As far as I know this is always the case
nchnls=2 ; 1=mono, 2=stereo, 4=quad

   	instr  1                 	; Instrument 1 begins here
iamp   =  	p4                	; Amplitude
ifqc   =  	p5                	; Frequency
itabl1 =  	p6                	; Waveform Table
aout   oscil  iamp, ifqc, itabl1	; An oscillator
   	outs   aout, aout        	; Output the results to a stereo sound file
   	endin                    	; Instrument 1 ends here

; SCORE
;Table# Start TableSize TableGenerator Parameter Comments
f1  	0 	16384 	10         	1     	; Sine

;Instrument#(p1) Start(p2) Duration(p3) Amplitude(p4) Frequency(p5) Table(p6)
i1           	0     	1        	10000     	440       	1

; Instr  Sta  Dur  Amp  Freq  Table
i1   	0	1	2000 330   1
i1   	1	1	4000 440   1
i1   	2	1	6000 600   1
i1   	3	1	8000 660   1

instr  1         	; Instrument 1 begins here
idur   =  	p3        	; Duration
iamp   =  	p4        	; Amplitude
ifqc   =  	cpspch(p5)	; Frequency
itabl1 =  	p6        	; Waveform

; Attack Decay Sustain Release Envelope
kamp   linseg 0, .1, 1, .2, .8, p3-.5, .8, .2, 0
aout   oscil  iamp, ifqc, itabl1              	; An oscillator
   	outs   aout*kamp, aout*kamp            	; Output the results to a stereo sound file
   	endin                                  	; Instrument 1 ends here

; Instr Sta Dur  Amp  Freq  Table
i1  	0   1	2000 7.00  1
i1  	+   .	4000 7.02  .
i1  	.   .	6000 7.04  .
i1  	.   .	8000 7.05  .

• How much time the musician have to compose. Short time = higher charge.
• How much music the developer requires.
• Complexity of making the music required.
• Method of publication (shareware, full-scale game etc)
• Estimated number of copies sold

"OK ... Where do I begin?"

• Get the equipment in order.
• Clean up the room.
• Turn off all electric equipment except the equipment used (of course).
• Take phone off the hook and make sure that you don't get interrupted by any sudden noise (That is, if you're not waiting any calls)
• I usually fade the light down just enough to see what I'm doing.
• Make sure you have all the things you need around you, so that your concentration wont be disturbed by having to go and get something in another room.
• Wear comfortable clothes!

• Beta frequency,(14.0-28.0 Hz) characteristic for activity, concentration, awareness. Human's day-to-day consciousness. Stress also occurs here.
• Alpha frequency, ( 7.0-14.0 Hz) Relaxed state with emotional balance. Remembering things is much easier here than in the day-to-day consciousness.
• Theta frequency, (3.5-7.0 Hz) Deep relaxation. The access to our subconscious "databank" is big. This state gives us better access to your memory and thereby increases the possibilities for creativity and genius. This is also called a hypnotic state. This is also the state were we can get aware of our dreams and so-called paranormal experiences. We are in this state just before we fall asleep. This can explain why we, when we are falling asleep, suddenly come up with a brilliant idea or maybe we hear some music in our head.
• Delta frequency, (0.3-3.5 Hz) A state of unconsciousness or sleep. Unconsciousness state.