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• ### Similar Content

• By KarimIO
Hey guys! Three questions about uniform buffers:
1) Is there a benefit to Vulkan and DirectX's Shader State for the Constant/Uniform Buffer? In these APIs, and NOT in OpenGL, you must set which shader is going to take each buffer. Why is this? For allowing more slots?
2) I'm building an wrapper over these graphics APIs, and was wondering how to handle passing parameters. In addition, I used my own json format to describe material formats and shader formats. In this, I can describe which shaders get what uniform buffers. I was thinking of moving to support ShaderLab (Unity's shader format) instead, as this would allow people to jump over easily enough and ease up the learning curve. But ShaderLab does not support multiple Uniform Buffers at all, as I can tell, let alone what parameters go where.
So to fix this, I was just going to send all Uniform Buffers to all shaders. Is this that big of a problem?
3) Do you have any references on how to organize material uniform buffers? I may be optimizing too early, but I've seen people say what a toll this can take.
• By abarnes
Hello All!
I am currently pursuing a degree in video game programming, so far I have completed an intro to programming course and object oriented programming course. Both were taught using C++ as the programming langauge which I know is very popular for game development, but in these classes we do not actually do any game development. I would like to start to build my skills with C++ for game development as that is a common required thing for a job and am looking for ways to do this. Any recommendations such as books to read or youtube videos to watch will be greatly appreciated!
• By Orella
I'm having problems rotating GameObjects in my engine. I'm trying to rotate in 2 ways.
I'm using MathGeoLib to calculate maths in the engine.
First way: Rotates correctly around axis but if I want to rotate back, if I don't do it following the inverse order then rotation doesn't work properly.
e.g:
Rotate X axis 50 degrees, Rotate Y axis 30 degrees -> Rotate Y axis -50 degrees, Rotate X axis -30 degrees. Works.
Rotate X axis 50 degrees, Rotate Y axis 30 degrees -> Rotate X axis -50 degrees, Rotate Y axis -30 degrees. Doesn't.

Code:
void ComponentTransform::SetRotation(float3 euler_rotation) { float3 diff = euler_rotation - editor_rotation; editor_rotation = euler_rotation; math::Quat mod = math::Quat::FromEulerXYZ(diff.x * DEGTORAD, diff.y * DEGTORAD, diff.z * DEGTORAD); quat_rotation = quat_rotation * mod; UpdateMatrix();  } Second way: Starts rotating good around axis but after rotating some times, then it stops to rotate correctly around axis, but if I rotate it back regardless of the rotation order it works, not like the first way.

Code:
void ComponentTransform::SetRotation(float3 euler_rotation) { editor_rotation = euler_rotation; quat_rotation = math::Quat::FromEulerXYZ(euler_rotation.x * DEGTORAD, euler_rotation.y * DEGTORAD, euler_rotation.z * DEGTORAD); UpdateMatrix();  }
Rest of code:
#define DEGTORAD 0.0174532925199432957f void ComponentTransform::UpdateMatrix() { if (!this->GetGameObject()->IsParent()) { //Get parent transform component ComponentTransform* parent_transform = (ComponentTransform*)this->GetGameObject()->GetParent()->GetComponent(Component::CompTransform); //Create matrix from position, rotation(quaternion) and scale transform_matrix = math::float4x4::FromTRS(position, quat_rotation, scale); //Multiply the object transform by parent transform transform_matrix = parent_transform->transform_matrix * transform_matrix; //If object have childs, call this function in childs objects for (std::list<GameObject*>::iterator it = this->GetGameObject()->childs.begin(); it != this->GetGameObject()->childs.end(); it++) { ComponentTransform* child_transform = (ComponentTransform*)(*it)->GetComponent(Component::CompTransform); child_transform->UpdateMatrix(); } } else { //Create matrix from position, rotation(quaternion) and scale transform_matrix = math::float4x4::FromTRS(position, quat_rotation, scale); //If object have childs, call this function in childs objects for (std::list<GameObject*>::iterator it = this->GetGameObject()->childs.begin(); it != this->GetGameObject()->childs.end(); it++) { ComponentTransform* child_transform = (ComponentTransform*)(*it)->GetComponent(Component::CompTransform); child_transform->UpdateMatrix(); } } } MathGeoLib: Quat MUST_USE_RESULT Quat::FromEulerXYZ(float x, float y, float z) { return (Quat::RotateX(x) * Quat::RotateY(y) * Quat::RotateZ(z)).Normalized(); } Quat MUST_USE_RESULT Quat::RotateX(float angle) { return Quat(float3(1,0,0), angle); } Quat MUST_USE_RESULT Quat::RotateY(float angle) { return Quat(float3(0,1,0), angle); } Quat MUST_USE_RESULT Quat::RotateZ(float angle) { return Quat(float3(0,0,1), angle); } Quat(const float3 &rotationAxis, float rotationAngleRadians) { SetFromAxisAngle(rotationAxis, rotationAngleRadians); } void Quat::SetFromAxisAngle(const float3 &axis, float angle) { assume1(axis.IsNormalized(), axis); assume1(MATH_NS::IsFinite(angle), angle); float sinz, cosz; SinCos(angle*0.5f, sinz, cosz); x = axis.x * sinz; y = axis.y * sinz; z = axis.z * sinz; w = cosz; } Any help?
Thanks.
• By owenjr
Hi there!
I am trying to implement a basic AI for a Turrets game in SFML and C++ and I have some problems.
This AI follows some waypoints stablished in a Bezier Courve.
In first place, this path was followed only by one enemy. For this purpose, the enemy has to calculate his distance between his actual position
to the next waypoint he has to pick.
If the distance is less than a specific value we stablish, then, we get to the next point. This will repeat until the final destination is reached. (in the submitting code, forget about the var m_go)

Okay, our problem gets when we spawn several enemies and all have to follow the same path, because it produces a bad visual effect (everyone gets upside another).
In order to solve this visual problem, we have decided to use a repulsion vector. The calculus gets like this:

As you can see, we calculate the repulsion vector with the inverse of the distance between the enemy and his nearest neighbor.
Then, we get it applying this to the "theorical" direction, by adding it, and we get a resultant, which is the direction that
our enemy has to follow to not "collide" with it's neighbors. But, our issue comes here:

The enemys get sepparated in the middle of the curve and, as we spawn more enemys, the speed of all of them increases dramatically (including the enemies that don't calculate the repuslion vector).
1 - Is it usual that this sepparation occours in the middle of the trajectory?
2 - Is it there a way to control this direction without the speed getting affected?
3 - Is it there any alternative to this theory?

I submit the code below (There is a variable in Spanish [resultante] which it means resultant in English):

if (!m_pathCompleted) { if (m_currentWP == 14 && m_cambio == true) { m_currentWP = 0; m_path = m_pathA; m_cambio = false; } if (m_neighbors.size() > 1) { for (int i = 0; i < m_neighbors.size(); i++) { if (m_enemyId != m_neighbors[i]->GetId()) { float l_nvx = m_neighbors[i]->GetSprite().getPosition().x - m_enemySprite.getPosition().x; float l_nvy = m_neighbors[i]->GetSprite().getPosition().y - m_enemySprite.getPosition().y; float distance = std::sqrt(l_nvx * l_nvx + l_nvy * l_nvy); if (distance < MINIMUM_NEIGHBOR_DISTANCE) { l_nvx *= -1; l_nvy *= -1; float l_vx = m_path[m_currentWP].x - m_enemySprite.getPosition().x; float l_vy = m_path[m_currentWP].y - m_enemySprite.getPosition().y; float l_resultanteX = l_nvx + l_vx; float l_resultanteY = l_nvy + l_vy; float l_waypointDistance = std::sqrt(l_resultanteX * l_resultanteX + l_resultanteY * l_resultanteY); if (l_waypointDistance < MINIMUM_WAYPOINT_DISTANCE) { if (m_currentWP == m_path.size() - 1) { std::cout << "\n"; std::cout << "[GAME OVER]" << std::endl; m_go = false; m_pathCompleted = true; } else { m_currentWP++; } } if (l_waypointDistance > MINIMUM_WAYPOINT_DISTANCE) { l_resultanteX = l_resultanteX / l_waypointDistance; l_resultanteY = l_resultanteY / l_waypointDistance; m_enemySprite.move(ENEMY_SPEED * l_resultanteX * dt, ENEMY_SPEED * l_resultanteY * dt); } } else { float vx = m_path[m_currentWP].x - m_enemySprite.getPosition().x; float vy = m_path[m_currentWP].y - m_enemySprite.getPosition().y; float len = std::sqrt(vx * vx + vy * vy); if (len < MINIMUM_WAYPOINT_DISTANCE) { if (m_currentWP == m_path.size() - 1) { std::cout << "\n"; std::cout << "[GAME OVER]" << std::endl; m_go = false; m_pathCompleted = true; } else { m_currentWP++; } } if (len > MINIMUM_WAYPOINT_DISTANCE) { vx = vx / len; vy = vy / len; m_enemySprite.move(ENEMY_SPEED * vx * dt, ENEMY_SPEED * vy * dt); } } } } } else { float vx = m_path[m_currentWP].x - m_enemySprite.getPosition().x; float vy = m_path[m_currentWP].y - m_enemySprite.getPosition().y; float len = std::sqrt(vx * vx + vy * vy); if (len < MINIMUM_WAYPOINT_DISTANCE) { if (m_currentWP == m_path.size() - 1) { std::cout << "\n"; std::cout << "[GAME OVER]" << std::endl; m_go = false; m_pathCompleted = true; } else { m_currentWP++; } } if (len > MINIMUM_WAYPOINT_DISTANCE) { vx = vx / len; vy = vy / len; m_enemySprite.move(ENEMY_SPEED * vx * dt, ENEMY_SPEED * vy * dt); } } }
¡¡Thank you very much in advance!!

• Overview
Welcome to the 2D UFO game guide using the Orx Portable Game Engine. My aim for this tutorial is to take you through all the steps to build a UFO game from scratch.
The aim of our game is to allow the player to control a UFO by applying physical forces to move it around. The player must collect pickups to increase their score to win.
I should openly acknowledge that this series is cheekily inspired by the 2D UFO tutorial written for Unity.
It makes an excellent comparison of the approaches between Orx and Unity. It is also a perfect way to highlight one of the major parts that makes Orx unique among other game engines, its Data Driven Configuration System.
You'll get very familiar with this system very soon. It's at the very heart of just about every game written using Orx.
If you are very new to game development, don't worry. We'll take it nice and slow and try to explain everything in very simple terms. The only knowledge you will need is some simple C++.
I'd like say a huge thank you to FullyBugged for providing the graphics for this series of articles.

What are we making?
Visit the video below to see the look and gameplay of the final game:
Getting Orx
The latest up to date version of Orx can be cloned from github and set up with:
git clone https://github.com/orx/orx.git After cloning, an $ORX environment variable will be created automatically for your system which will help with making game projects much easier. It will also create several IDE projects for your operating system: Visual Studio, Codelite, Code::Blocks, and gmake. These Orx projects will allow you to compile the Orx library for use in your own projects. And the$ORX environment variable means that your projects will know where to find the Orx library.
For more details on this step, visit http://orx-project.org/wiki/en/tutorials/cloning_orx_from_github at the Orx learning wiki.
Setting up a 2D UFO Project
Now the you have the Orx libraries cloned and compiled, you will need a blank project for your game. Supported options are: Visual Studio, CodeLite, Code::Blocks, XCode or gmake, depending on your operating system.
Once you have a game project, you can use it to work through the steps in this tutorial.
Orx provides a very nice system for auto creating game projects for you. In the root of the Orx repo, you will find either the init.bat (for Windows) or init.sh (Mac/Linux) command.
Create a project for our 2D game from the command line in the Orx folder and running:
init c:\temp\ufo or
init.sh ~/ufo Orx will create a project for each IDE supported by your OS at the specified location. You can copy this folder anywhere, and your project will always compile and link due to the \$ORX environment variable. It knows where the libraries and includes are for Orx.
Open your project using your favourite IDE from within the ufo/build folder.
When the blank template loads, there are two main folders to note in your solution:
config src Firstly, the src folder contains a single source file, ufo.cpp. This is where we will add the c++ code for the game. The config folder contains configuration files for our game.
What is config?
Orx is a data driven 2D game engine. Many of the elements in your game, like objects, spawners, music etc, do not need to be defined in code. They can be defined (or configured) using config files.
You can make a range of complex multi-part objects with special behaviours and effects in Orx, and bring them into your game with a single line of code. You'll see this in the following chapters of this guide.
There are three ufo config files in the config folder but for this guide, only one will actually be used in our game. This is:
ufo.ini All our game configuration will be done there.
Over in the Orx library repo folder under orx/code/bin, there are two other config files:
CreationTemplate.ini SettingsTemplate.ini These are example configs and they list all the properties and values that are available to you. We will mainly concentrate on referring to the CreationTemplate.ini, which is for objects, sounds, etc. It's good idea to include these two files into your project for easy reference.
Alternatively you can view these online at https://github.com/orx/orx/blob/master/code/bin/CreationTemplate.ini and here: https://github.com/orx/orx/blob/master/code/bin/SettingsTemplate.ini

The code template
Now to take a look at the basic ufo.cpp and see what is contained there.
The first function is the Init() function.
This function will execute when the game starts up. Here you can create objects have been defined in the config, or perform other set up tasks like handlers. We'll do both of these soon.
The Run() function is executed every main clock cycle. This is a good place to continually perform a task. Though there are better alternatives for this, and we will cover those later. This is mainly used to check for the quit key.
The Exit() function is where memory is cleaned up when your game quits. Orx cleans up nicely after itself. We won't use this function as part of this guide.
The Bootstrap() function is an optional function to use. This is used to tell Orx where to find the first config file for use in our game (ufo.ini). There is another way to do this, but for now, we'll use this function to inform Orx of the config.
Then of course, the main() function. We do not need to use this function in this guide.
Now that we have everything we need to get start, you should be able to compile successfully. Run the program and an Orx logo will appear slowly rotating.

Great. So now you have everything you need to start building the UFO game.

Setting up the game assets
Our game will have a background, a UFO which the player will control, and some pickups that the player can collect.
The UFO will be controlled by the player using the cursor keys.
First you'll need the assets to make the game. You can download the file  assets-for-orx-ufo-game.zip which contains:
The background file (background.png):

The UFO and Pickup sprite images (ufo.png and pickup.png):

And a pickup sound effect (pickup.ogg):
pickup.ogg
Copy the .png files into your data/texture folder
Copy the .ogg file into your data/sound folder.
Now these files can be accessed by your project and included in the game.

Setting up the Playfield
We will start by setting up the background object. This is done using config.
Open the ufo.ini config file in your editor and add the following:

[BackgroundGraphic] Texture = background.png Pivot = center
The BackgroundGraphic defined here is called a Graphic Section. It has two properties defined. The first is Texture which has been set as background.png.
The Orx library knows where to find this image, due to the properties set in the Resource section:

[Resource] Texture = ../../data/texture
So any texture files that are required (just like in our BackgroundGraphic section) will be located in the ../../data/texture folder.
The second parameter is Pivot. A pivot is the handle (or sometimes “hotspot” in other frameworks). This is set to be center. The position is 0,0 by default, just like the camera. The effect is to ensure the background sits in the center of our game window.
There are other values available for Pivot. To see the list of values, open the CreationTemplate.ini file in your editor. Scroll to the GraphicTemplate section and find Pivot in the list. There you can see all the possible values that could be used.
top left is also a typical value.
We need to define an object that will make use of this graphic. This will be the actual entity that is used in the game:

[BackgroundObject] Graphic = BackgroundGraphic Position = (0, 0, 0)
The Graphic property is the section BackgroundGraphic that we defined earlier. Our object will use that graphic.
The second property is the Position. In our world, this object will be created at (0, 0, 0). In Orx, the coordinates are (x, y, z). It may seem strange that Orx, being a 2D game engine has a Z axis. Actually Orx is 2.5D. It respects the Z axis for objects, and can use this for layering above or below other objects in the game.
To make the object appear in our game, we will add a line of code in our source file to create it.
In the Init() function of ufo.cpp, remove the default line:
orxObject_CreateFromConfig("Object"); and replace it with:
orxObject_CreateFromConfig("BackgroundObject"); Compile and run.
The old spinning logo is now replaced with a nice tiled background object.

Next, the ufo object is required. This is what the player will control. This will be covered in Part 2.

# C++ Scope of local variables and their destructors

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Its been a while since I have done C++ and I was wondering if someone could help me understand local variables and what happens they go out of scope

So I have this method for creating a vertex shader and it returns a custom class called VertexShader. But before it returns the VertexShader it places it into a std::unsorted_map called vertexShaders

//Declared at the ShaderModule class level. Map to store VertexShaders in

{

D3D11_INPUT_ELEMENT_DESC inputElementDescription[] = {
{ "POSITION", 0, DXGI_FORMAT_R32G32B32_FLOAT, 0, 0, D3D11_INPUT_PER_VERTEX_DATA, 0 },
{ "COLOR", 0, DXGI_FORMAT_R32G32B32_FLOAT, 0, D3D11_APPEND_ALIGNED_ELEMENT, D3D11_INPUT_PER_VERTEX_DATA, 0 },
};

}

Now at the end of the method, right as the return is done, I see that the destructor for my variable vertexShader gets called. And this might sound ridiculous, but I really dont understand why?

Shouldn't it live on in memory since it was placed into the vertexShaders map and only when the vertexShaders map is destroyed then the deconstructor for my VertexShader is called?  By doing vertexShaders[id] = vertexShader am I really just making a copy and then eventually another deconstructor for the VertexShader placed into the map will be called?

Also when using the method the destructor is called twice? VertexShader being returned from the method now also getting destroyed?

//Declaration of the vertex shader. Done at the class level

void GraphicsSystem::initialize(HWND windowHandle)
{
/* Other init code*/

}

Edited by noodleBowl

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Placing your variable into the std map dose not give it a scope as it does in C# for example. C++ dosent know if an object is in scope or out of it, this would be the task for a memory/garbadge collector system you would have to write by yourself. This line

VertexShader vertexShader(id); //Create a new VertexShader

creates a local variable of type VertexShader on the stack that lives as long as you remain inside stack scope. And when calling

return vertexShader;

it returns a new copy of your stack scoped variable to the recipient that called your setup function and after that cleans up the stack by removing your local instance from memory. The same is true for your unordered map since it isnt a pointer, the insert function of the std map creates a copy of your object inside the memory std map manages.

The only chance you have here is to use either some kind of ref pointer that takes responsability for keeping your instance alive as long as there are references to it alive or use a raw pointer so you need to take responsability to delete it after you were done so memory could be released properly (destructor wont be called since delete). Otherwise you would have two different copies and in the most anyoing case (as yours occuring) it will happen that your class gest destructed and data you previously attached gets lost

Edited by Shaarigan

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2 hours ago, Shaarigan said:

it returns a new copy of your stack scoped variable to the recipient that called your setup function and after that cleans up the stack by removing your local instance from memory.

The copy is not guaranteed due to C++'s Return Value Optimization.

2 hours ago, Shaarigan said:

class gest destructed

The object or class instance gets destructed, not the class itself.

3 hours ago, noodleBowl said:

it returns a custom class called VertexShader

Idd.: An object or class instance is returned, not the class itself.

3 hours ago, noodleBowl said:

By doing vertexShaders[id] = vertexShader am I really just making a copy and then eventually another deconstructor for the VertexShader placed into the map will be called?

Yes, the copy constructor is used resulting in a copy of vertexShader.

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4 hours ago, noodleBowl said:

Also when using the method the destructor is called twice?

Take a look at the Return Value Optimization example on Wikipedia. It is possible that the copy assignment operator is invoked twice (which also implies that the destructor is invoked twice). Although, I really doubt that any C++11/14 compiler would use a copy assignment in the presence of move semantics?

Edited by matt77hias

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2 hours ago, Shaarigan said:

it returns a new copy of your stack scoped variable to the recipient that called your setup function and after that cleans up the stack by removing your local instance from memory. The same is true for your unordered map since it isnt a pointer, the insert function of the std map creates a copy of your object inside the memory std map manages.

The only chance you have here is to use either some kind of ref pointer that takes responsability for keeping your instance alive as long as there are references to it alive or use a raw pointer so you need to take responsability to delete it after you were done so memory could be released properly (destructor wont be called since delete). Otherwise you would have two different copies and in the most anyoing case (as yours occuring) it will happen that your class gest destructed and data you previously attached gets lost

Thats not the case in modern C++ (>11) anymore. With a proper move-constructor/assignment operator, instead of creating a copy it will move the data of the local "vertexShader" variable into the target on the callers side. If you define VertexShader as non-copyable (deleted copy- ctor/assignment-operator) then you can make sure this is happening all the time, even before the recent http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/copy_elision. (which is different to RVO; but probably won't happen if you assign to a global like in the example-code)

However, one place this code certainly does create a copy is this:

4 hours ago, noodleBowl said:

So the code as shown still is flawed in this way. But, you could easily do:

VertexShader& ShaderModule::createVertexShader(LPCWSTR fileName, LPCSTR id, LPCSTR entryPoint, LPCSTR targetProfile) //  returns reference
{

D3D11_INPUT_ELEMENT_DESC inputElementDescription[] = {
{ "POSITION", 0, DXGI_FORMAT_R32G32B32_FLOAT, 0, 0, D3D11_INPUT_PER_VERTEX_DATA, 0 },
{ "COLOR", 0, DXGI_FORMAT_R32G32B32_FLOAT, 0, D3D11_APPEND_ALIGNED_ELEMENT, D3D11_INPUT_PER_VERTEX_DATA, 0 },
};

}

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3 minutes ago, Juliean said:

std::unique_ptr &

A reference as data element in the collection?

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Just now, matt77hias said:

A reference as data element in the collection?

Eh, forget that part, I had a brainfart and assumed std::unique_ptr would reallocate elements as it grows. See my edit, thats how I would do it.

Still I don't quite get your question. What i indendet was:

std::unordered_map<LPCSTR, std::unique_ptr<VertexShader>> vertexShaders;

But since (I hope I've got it right now that) its safe to keep a reference to an element in an unordered_map, thats unnecessary.

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2 minutes ago, Juliean said:

Ah ok, I thought you meant something like this:

std::unordered_map< LPCSTR, std::unique_ptr< VertexShader > & > vertexShaders;

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As a side note:

You can use a create a resource manager that constructs instances of a subclass of VertexShader (which should have a virtual destructor) by using variadic templates to pass the constructor arguments to the base class VertexShader, and that stores weak pointers to them. That way the resource manager is kind of notified on deletion.

Take a look at: SharedresourcePool in the DirectXTK.

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Let me see if I have this right

// VertexShader class
{
public:
LPCSTR id;
}
this->id = id;
}
}
};

//Test method

}

//Main method
void main() {
//Call the test method
}
//shade's destructor is called after main exits

Is that is what is happening? Or do I have this totally wrong?

Edited by noodleBowl